Key Takeaway

Students with significant disabilities deserve to (and can) learn academic skills from the general education curriculum along with the functional skills needed to master daily living. Teachers and paraprofessionals should ensure they provide a balance of these skill areas in a child’s educational program. The challenge of providing high-quality academic instruction can be addressed in part by utilizing evidence-based best practices to target academic skills. —Ayla Reau 

Why Focus on Academic Skills?

Authors Cannella-Malone, Dueker, Barczak, and Brock list three compelling reasons for a focus on academic skills.

  • A focus on academic skills can lead to improved outcomes in adulthood as “increased literacy and mathematical competencies that can expand job opportunities, broaden leisure skills, and promote independent living.”
  • Students with significant disabilities are capable of making progress in the general education curriculum. 
  • All students with disabilities should have access to academic instruction since all students deserve to have access to inclusive and quality education. 

The authors conducted a systematic literature review of 225 experiments in 222 articles published in 54 peer-reviewed journals between 1976 and 2018 in order to analyze academic instruction for students with significant intellectual and developmental disabilities across all areas of academic content. 

Post-School Outcomes

The increased focus on academic outcomes for all students across the years has led to an exponential increase in the number of studies in this field. With regard to students with significant disabilities, research has shown that it is possible to teach both academic and functional skills effectively and “in a way that promotes positive post-school outcomes for students with disabilities.”

A majority of the participants in these studies of academic interventions have moderate disabilities. While students with severe and profound disabilities have had the least attention paid to them with regard to academic instruction, they are known to have the worst post-school outcomes. It could be argued that “access to functional reading, writing, math, science, and social studies could have a dramatic impact on outcomes for these students.”

Content and Instructional Strategies

Studies disproportionally focus on reading skills, with a majority of studies targeting sight word instruction. “However, there are a growing number of studies moving beyond simple, rote targets and focusing on more complicated skills such as reading comprehension across content areas, essay writing, and math word problems.”

While the authors identified 16 instructional strategies used to teach academic skills, the studies mainly focus on five—reinforcement, prompting, time delay, modeling, and visual support. The 16, in order of reported use, are: 

  • Reinforcement 
  • Prompting 
  • Modeling 
  • Visual support 
  • Time delay 
  • Technology-aided instruction 
  • Least-to-most prompting 
  • Scripting 
  • Discrete trial training 
  • Peer-mediated instruction 
  • Naturalistic intervention 
  • Video modeling 
  • Graduated guidance 
  • Early reading intervention
  • Most-to-least prompting
  • Varied error correction

Learning Context

A majority of studies did not frame academic instruction within a functional context. The authors recommend that “a shift from targeting single skills to teaching relevant skills within a functional framework would likely increase the efficiency of instruction and potentially have a more powerful impact on students.”

Most studies used only a one-to-one format for instruction, with a few using small groups alone or in combination with one-to-one. Most also occurred in a self-contained special education classroom. The authors “found the lack of focus on teaching academic skills in general education surprising given that previous research has shown that students make more progress in the general education curriculum when instruction is provided in the general education [classroom] setting.”

Practical Application

Since students with significant intellectual and developmental disabilities can acquire and make progress with academic skills across content areas, teacher training should ensure that new teachers engage with both functional and academic content. Educators should also be using evidence-based practices such as reinforcement, prompting, time delay, visual supports, and modeling to teach academic skills. There is also additional research that supports the effective use of these strategies by paraprofessionals who assist teachers in providing academic instruction. 

Summarized Article:

Cannella-Malone, H. I., Dueker, S. A., Barczak, M. A., & Brock, M. E. (2019). Teaching academic skills to students with significant intellectual disabilities: A systematic review of the single-case design literature. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities, 1744629519895387.

Summary by: Ayla Reau—Ayla is excited to help continue to grow the MARIO Framework, seeing the potential for it to impact all students across any educational context.

Researcher Scott Dueker participated in the final version of this summary.

Key Takeaway

Although students with learning disabilities (LD) may experience difficulties throughout their academic career, they can develop strategies to overcome them—at times, without professional guidance. Yet, “active use of mentorship, coaching and support service units for students with LD will also contribute to ensuring greater success in higher education.” —Frankie Garbutt

Firat (Adiyaman University, Turkey) and Bildiren (Adnan Menderes University, Turkey) were intrigued by the increase in number of students with learning disabilities amongst university students overall. They wanted to know how these students may experience difficulties when compared to neuro-typical students because only a small percentage of students with LDs eventually graduate from university.

What Was Measured

The researchers collected a range of qualitative data on one student with learning disabilities (defined as ongoing problems with literacy and numeracy as well as verbal language use). They measured the strengths and weaknesses of the student throughout his academic life (from preschool to university) and how the student worked to build methods to overcome barriers to their academic progress. 

The participant’s strengths over his education career included motor development, problem-solving, social skills, a desire to develop, and self-advocacy. His weaknesses throughout his educational career included subject content, social skills, executive functioning, and metacognitive skills. 

Many of the difficulties he experienced in primary school continued through university, while one of his specific weaknesses in preschool, social skills, became a strength in his university years. 

He was able to develop strategies to succeed on his own by studying lessons, improving memory methods, and learning to speed read. Interestingly, the student had not been identified with learning needs until he entered university and took a course on learning disabilities. Alongside his academic career, the participant learned to grow his self-esteem with activities outside the classroom like “chess or wrestling.”

Recommendations and Limitations

“Socio-emotional and academic difficulties experienced by students with LD may also continue throughout their university education. In this context, academic staff may receive additional training for increasing their awareness on the requirements of students with LD and for learning how they can support these students better.” 

There are limitations to this research because “the study was carried out with a single student in the final year of his university education. Accordingly, the opinions of a greater number of students could be examined to yield more generalisable insights.”  

Furthermore, the study data relied on interviews with the participant which may be tainted by him not accurately remembering the strengths and difficulties he experienced throughout his academic career. “The acquired data are limited by the self-awareness level of the student. Hence, this can be taken into consideration in future studies and the opinions of the student can be taken together with those of their peers, students, and family members.” 

Summarized Article:

Fırat, T., & Bildiren, A. (2021). Strengths and weaknesses of a student with learning disabilities: from preschool to university. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 45(7), 958-972. 


Summary by: Frankie Garbutt- Frankie believes that the MARIO Framework encourages students to become reflective, independent learners who progress at their own rate.

Key Takeaway

Metacognitive awareness (MA) is a significant predictor of academic achievement, enabling learners to take charge of their own learning by increasing their self-reliance, flexibility, and productivity. Teachers’ ability to create learning environments that support the development of MA is crucial to successful, life-long academic and social-emotional learning. —Ashley Parnell

Three Core Components of Metacognitive Awareness

Metacognitive Awareness (MA) means being aware of how you think and learn, and involves the ability to reflect on, monitor, and evaluate your learning and learning strategies. This study sought to examine teachers’ perceived support for learners’ metacognitive awareness in relation to three core components of MA: 

  • Knowledge of learning objects—to foster declarative (knowing what) & conditional (knowing why) metacognitive knowledge, teachers stimulate student understanding of what they know, what they need to know, and why they need to know and then support students in goal-setting. 
  • Regulation of learning strategies—to cultivate the planning, monitoring, and debugging of learning strategies, teachers guide students in identifying their own learning strategies, utilizing problem-solving strategies to monitor and modify those strategies as needed.
  • Self-evaluation—to guide self-evaluation of knowledge and regulation, teachers use questioning strategies to support the learning in evaluating their learning progress and associated learning strategies.

Differences in Perceived Support by Discipline

Specifically, the researchers explored the differences in perceived support of MA across teacher groups, including subject teachers in both vocational education and training (VET) (those who teach skills needed in working life) and general education (GE) (those who teach all-round education), in addition to special education teachers.

Participants included 1,045 secondary vocational education and training (VET) subject teachers, GE subject teachers, and special teachers in Finland. Using the Inventory of Teacher’s Metacognition Support (ITEMS), teachers rated their practice of instructional strategies and scaffolds that effectively support the development of the three-component model of MA. 

Results revealed the following differences or lack thereof:

  • Special education teachers support learners’ MA more than VET and GE subject teachers across all components except self-evaluation of knowledge of learning—an area which was better supported by VET teachers than special education teachers. 
  • Perceived support varied between groups of subject areas in GE (i.e. math, physics, & chemistry vs. biology & geography) and components of MA.
  • Women systematically supported learners’ MA more than men.
  • Experienced teachers provided slightly more support for students’ MA than less experienced teachers, particularly teachers holding a Master’s degree.

These findings, considered alongside the critical role of teachers in effectively teaching and supporting the development of MA through instructional practices, confirm the importance of: 

  • developing MA support capabilities during pre-service and in-service teacher education;
  • increasing collaboration between junior and senior teachers; 
  • recognition of the value and impact of metacognitive awareness and understanding across all levels of education.

Summarized Article:

Kallio, H., Kallio, M., Virta, K., Iiskala, T., & Hotulainen, R. (2020). Teachers’ Support for Learners’ Metacognitive Awareness. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2020.1755358

Summary by:  Ashley M. Parnell — Ashley strives to apply the MARIO Framework to build evidence-based learning environments that support student engagement, empowerment and passion, and is working with a team of educators to grow and share this framework with other educators.

Key Takeaway

Memory aids are being used as accommodations more often than before, and the question of whether they are actually necessary or if they are depriving students of learning effective study and retrieval strategies—leading to an extended dependence on unnecessary accommodations—is arising. —Shekufeh

Are Memory Aids Fair? 

Memory aids have been gaining popularity in schools as an accommodation for students who need cues to enhance memory recall. In their article, Harrison, Holmes, and Pollock (2021) raised some questions on whether this is a tool that can continue to be used in an equitable manner at a post-secondary level or if it is depriving students of the opportunity to learn effective study skills and recall strategies. 

“Memory cues enhance memory functioning of all individuals,” and providing these cues “to only a few individuals in a class would raise significant issues of reverse discrimination and accommodation fairness.”1 Memory aids “should be provided only in very specific and limited circumstances.” 

However, in practice, this accommodation appears to be recommended more and more frequently in the K-12 school system. As Roberts (2012) notes, “accommodations are meant to level the playing field . . . not tilt it to the student’s advantage, or act as insurance against failure.”2

Does a Student Need a Memory Aid? 

In order for a student to qualify for the accommodation of a memory aid, a clinician would need to determine the following:

(a) the student actually learned the information that was taught;

(b) despite trying their hardest, they failed to remember this learned information; 

(c) they could remember the stored information when given cues; and 

(d) that the difference between their spontaneous recall and cued recall is significantly larger than for most other students.

Long-term memory disorders are “extremely rare in children or young adults.”3 Kibby & Cohen (2008) elaborate that “even children with severe learning or attention problems fail to have impaired long-term recall of previously learned information.”4 To document the need for a memory aid, one must first establish that retrieval of information from long-term memory is faulty. Therefore, it should be quite rare to require memory aids at either the level of school or beyond, unless the student has a documented severe neurological disorder. 

One recent ruling concluded that “the purpose of granting accommodations . . . is to ensure that test-takers with disabilities are neither disadvantaged nor advantaged in comparison with non-disabled test-takers.”5 However, in school environments, the focus is on maximising a student’s learning by accommodating any potential disabilities that student may present with. 

Adolescents or young adults in school often mistakenly believe they have “long-term memory problems when, in fact, they never paid attention to or learned the information in the first place.”6 It may feel like a memory problem to them (or to others who interact with them) when in fact the problem is one of an initial attention deficit, as you cannot remember that to which you did not pay attention.

Summarized Article:

Harrison, A. G., Holmes, A., & Pollock, B. (2021). Memory Aids as a Disability-Related Accommodation? Let’s Remember to Recommend Them Appropriately. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 36(3), 255-272.

Summary by: Shekufeh – Shekufeh believes that the MARIO Framework builds relationships that enable students to view the world in a positive light as well as empowering them to create plans that ultimately lead to their success. 

Additional References:

  1. Duchnick, J. J., Vanderploeg, R. D., & Curtiss, G. (2002). Identifying retrieval problems using the California Verbal Learning Test. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 24(6), 840–851.
  2. Roberts, B. (2012). Beyond psychometric evaluation of the student—task determinants of accommodation: Why students with learning disabilities may not need to be accommodated. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 27(1), 72–80.
  3. Majerus, S., & Van Der Linden, M. (2013). Memory disorders in children. In O. Dulac, M. Lassonde & H. B. Sarnat (Eds.), Handbook of clinical neurology, Volume 111: Pediatric neurology part 1 (pp. 251–255).
  4. Kibby, M. Y., & Cohen, M. J. (2008). Memory functioning in children with reading disabilities and/or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A clinical investigation of their working memory and long-term memory functioning. Child Neuropsychology, 14(6). 525–546.
  5. Cohen v. Law School Admission Council, 537 CANLII. (HRTO 2014). https://www.canlii.org/en/on/onhrt/doc/2014/2014hrto537/2014hrto537.html
  6. Watson, J. M., & Strayer, D. L. (2010). Supertaskers: Profiles in extraordinary multitasking ability. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 17, 479–485.

Researcher Allyson Harrison participated in the final version of this summary. 

Key Takeaway: Memory aids are being used as accommodations more often than before, and the question of whether they are actually necessary or if they are depriving students of learning effective study and retrieval strategies—leading to an extended dependence on unnecessary accommodations—is arising. —Shekufeh

Are Memory Aids Fair? 

Memory aids have been gaining popularity in schools as an accommodation for students who need cues to enhance memory recall. In their article, Harrison, Holmes, and Pollock (2021) raised some questions on whether this is a tool that can continue to be used in an equitable manner at a post-secondary level or if it is depriving students of the opportunity to learn effective study skills and recall strategies. 

This is heading 4

“Memory cues enhance memory functioning of all individuals,” and providing these cues “to only a few individuals in a class would raise significant issues of reverse discrimination and accommodation fairness.”1 Memory aids “should be provided only in very specific and limited circumstances.” 

However, in practice, this accommodation appears to be recommended more and more frequently in the K-12 school system. As Roberts (2012) notes, “accommodations are meant to level the playing field . . . not tilt it to the student’s advantage, or act as insurance against failure.”2

Does a Student Need a Memory Aid? 

In order for a student to qualify for the accommodation of a memory aid, a clinician would need to determine the following:

(a) the student actually learned the information that was taught;

(b) despite trying their hardest, they failed to remember this learned information; 

(c) they could remember the stored information when given cues; and 

(d) that the difference between their spontaneous recall and cued recall is significantly larger than for most other students.

Long-term memory disorders are “extremely rare in children or young adults.”3 Kibby & Cohen (2008) elaborate that “even children with severe learning or attention problems fail to have impaired long-term recall of previously learned information.”4 To document the need for a memory aid, one must first establish that retrieval of information from long-term memory is faulty. Therefore, it should be quite rare to require memory aids at either the level of school or beyond, unless the student has a documented severe neurological disorder. 

One recent ruling concluded that “the purpose of granting accommodations . . . is to ensure that test-takers with disabilities are neither disadvantaged nor advantaged in comparison with non-disabled test-takers.”5 However, in school environments, the focus is on maximising a student’s learning by accommodating any potential disabilities that student may present with. 

Adolescents or young adults in school often mistakenly believe they have “long-term memory problems when, in fact, they never paid attention to or learned the information in the first place.”6 It may feel like a memory problem to them (or to others who interact with them) when in fact the problem is one of an initial attention deficit, as you cannot remember that to which you did not pay attention.

Summarized Article:

Harrison, A. G., Holmes, A., & Pollock, B. (2021). Memory Aids as a Disability-Related Accommodation? Let’s Remember to Recommend Them Appropriately. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 36(3), 255-272.

Summary by: Shekufeh – Shekufeh believes that the MARIO Framework builds relationships that enable students to view the world in a positive light as well as empowering them to create plans that ultimately lead to their success. 

Additional References:

  1. Duchnick, J. J., Vanderploeg, R. D., & Curtiss, G. (2002). Identifying retrieval problems using the California Verbal Learning Test. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 24(6), 840–851.
  2. Roberts, B. (2012). Beyond psychometric evaluation of the student—task determinants of accommodation: Why students with learning disabilities may not need to be accommodated. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 27(1), 72–80.
  3. Majerus, S., & Van Der Linden, M. (2013). Memory disorders in children. In O. Dulac, M. Lassonde & H. B. Sarnat (Eds.), Handbook of clinical neurology, Volume 111: Pediatric neurology part 1 (pp. 251–255).
  4. Kibby, M. Y., & Cohen, M. J. (2008). Memory functioning in children with reading disabilities and/or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A clinical investigation of their working memory and long-term memory functioning. Child Neuropsychology, 14(6). 525–546.
  5. Cohen v. Law School Admission Council, 537 CANLII. (HRTO 2014). https://www.canlii.org/en/on/onhrt/doc/2014/2014hrto537/2014hrto537.html
  6. Watson, J. M., & Strayer, D. L. (2010). Supertaskers: Profiles in extraordinary multitasking ability. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 17, 479–485.

Researcher Allyson Harrison participated in the final version of this summary. 

Key Takeaway

During the COVID-19 lockdown, there was a rise in sibling conflict in families where at least one child had moderate special educational needs and disabilities (SENDs). These young people with special needs were both the instigators and receivers of the conflict, and it was mainly those with severe and complex needs that were spared this conflict. —Shekufeh

Sibling Conflict and Special Needs

In one of the first articles of its kind, Toseeb (University of York, 2021) investigated the effects of the COVID-19 lockdown on families with children that had special education needs. The main focus was on sibling conflict during and after the first lockdown in the United Kingdom in families where at least one child has special needs. 

According to Toseeb, “at their highest level (the third month of lockdown), three out of four young people with [SENDs] were being picked on or hurt by their siblings and four out of five were picking on or hurting their siblings on purpose.” The study showed that boys were more likely to be involved in persistent sibling conflict than girls.1 

Mental Health

In addition, those with pre-existing mental health difficulties, low self-esteem, or social difficulties are also more likely to be involved in persistent sibling conflict.2,3 This also affects the parents of young people with SENDs, “who may experience higher levels of psychological distress compared with parents of neurotypical young people,”4 thus increasing the risk of intra-familial conflict.5 Additionally, young people with SENDs may “require disproportionate time, attention, and support from parents fuelling competitive behaviour and aggression amongst siblings.”6

Social Skills

Social and communication difficulties may make children with special needs more prone to being picked on by siblings, as is the case for conflict with peers.7 “Neurotypical siblings of young people with SENDs may also have some social impairments, such as not being able to respond appropriately in social situations,8 which may increase the risk of escalation of sibling conflict.“

Birth Order and Family Size

First-born children in a family were more likely to be victimized by their

siblings compared with those who were born second or later. Additionally, as the number of siblings increased, so did the frequency of victimization. In addition to this, “those siblings with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder were more likely to pick on or hurt their siblings compared with those without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder” (Toseeb, 2021).

Communication Skills

Young people who were minimally verbal, enrolled in non-mainstream educational placement, or had an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) were less likely to be victimized by their siblings compared with those who were verbal, enrolled in a mainstream school, or those who did not have an IEP, respectively.

Children who were minimally verbal appeared to be somewhat protected from sibling conflict, both in terms of victimization and perpetration. It may be that siblings of young people with complex or severe SENDs perceive the attention directed towards their affected sibling as warranted and therefore are less likely to compete for parental resources.9 

Alternatively, it may be that “siblings of those with complex or severe SENDs adopt a more parent-like approach in the face of adversity. This is in line with the family systems approach whereby if one member of the family is affected with a SEND, then other members of the family tend to adapt to accommodate.”10

Summarized Article:

Toseeb, U. (2021) Sibling conflict during COVID-19 in families with special educational needs and disabilities. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 2021.

Summary by: Shekufeh—Shekufeh believes that the MARIO Framework builds relationships that enable students to view the world in a positive light as well as empowering them to create plans that ultimately lead to their success. 

Additional References:

  1. Tucker, C. J., Finkelhor, D., Shattuck, A. M., & Turner, H. (2013). Prevalence and correlates of sibling victimization types. Child Abuse & Neglect, vol. 37(4), pp. 213–223.
  2. Dantchev, S., & Wolke, D. (2019). Trouble in the nest: Antecedents of sibling bullying victimization and perpetration. Developmental Psychology, vol. 55(5), pp. 1059–1071.
  3. Phillips, D. A., Bowie, B. H., Wan, D. C., & Yukevich, K. W. (2016). Sibling violence and children hospitalized for serious mental and behavioral health problems. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, vol. 33, pp. 2558–2578.
  4. Hoffman, C. D., Sweeney, D. P., Hodge, D., Lopez-Wagner, M. C., & Looney, L. (2009). Parenting stress and closeness: Mothers of typically developing children and mothers of children with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, vol. 24(3), pp. 178–187.
  5. Lee, S., & Ward, K. (2020). Stress and parenting during the coronavirus pandemic. Retrieved from https://www.parentingincontext.org/uploads/8/1/3/1/81318622/research_brief_stress_and_parenting_during_the_coronavirus_pandemic_final.pdf
  6. Felson, R. B. (1983). Aggression and violence between siblings. Social Psychology Quarterly, vol. 46(4), pp. 271–285.
  7. Cappadocia, M. C., Weiss, J. A., & Pepler, D. (2012). Bullying experiences among children and youth with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, vol. 42(2), pp. 266–277.
  8. Constantino, J. N., Lajonchere, C., Lutz, M., Gray, T., Abbacchi, A., McKenna, K., … Todd, R. D. (2006). Autistic social impairment in the siblings of children with pervasive developmental disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 163(2), pp. 294–296.
  9. Kowal, A., Krull, J. L., Kramer, L., & Crick, N. R. (2002). Children’s perceptions of the fairness of parental preferential treatment and their socioemotional well-be Interpersonal Development, vol. 16(3), pp. 297–306.
  10. Turnbull, A. P., Summers, J. A., & Brotherson, M. J. (1986). Family life cycle: Theoretical and empirical implications and future directions for families with mentally retarded members. In J. J. Gallagher & P. M. Vietze (Eds.), Families of handicapped persons: Research, programs, and policy issues (pp. 445–477). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

Key Takeaway

The inclusion of students with disabilities (SWDs) within general education classrooms and the improvement of academic performance continues to be a challenge faced by many school districts across the United States. However, data collected on special education reform in America’s largest school district, New York City (NYC), suggests that progress on inclusion is possible, yet increases in academic performance are more difficult to achieve, emphasizing the need for new policies that address this gap in the educational system. —Taryn McBrayne

A Decade-Long Study

In this article, Stiefel et al. share the findings of their decade-long (2005-2015) empirical study on special education reform. The study “examines progress toward the twin legislative goals of both the federal Individuals with Disability Education Act (IDEA) and NYC district goals of (a) including SWDs in general education settings and (b) improving their academic performance.”

As Stiefel et al. outline, between 2000 – 2010 various educational reports circulated in the state of New York, highlighting concerns regarding the representation of SWDs in NYC schools. According to the 2012 NYC Public Advocate report, “data from 2009 to 2010 revealed that SWDs had lower rates of inclusion, high school graduation, and math and English proficiency.”1 

In response to such reports, A Shared Path to Success policy was initiated in 2010. Here, SWDs were provided with one of four support services based on need, including support services, supplemental instruction, co-teaching, and self-contained services.  

In an attempt to assess the legislative goals over time, Stiefel et al. examined yearly trends in areas including but not limited to the distribution of SWDs across classrooms, math and ELA standardized test scores, and high school graduation rates. 

The Results

The results of the study by Stiefel et al. can be summarized as follows: 

  • Although more SWDs were represented in the school system, the proportion with particular disabilities changed. This difference is likely because “students with certain disabilities can be more difficult to integrate.”2
  • “NYC schools experienced changes in student composition that made achieving progress for SWDs on test performance more challenging.”
  • “Performance [on math and ELA exams] varied considerably by student type and over time,” thus making trends difficult to assess. 
  • Data concluded that “SWDs have made some progress in graduating . . . but they have some distance to go before achieving anything close to those of GENs.”
  • In terms of attendance, statistics showed that “In NYC high schools… the attendance rate for SWDs in 2015 was 81%, trailing GENs by about 8% points.” 

Key Implications

The authors also highlight three key implications of their study:

  1. Educators and policymakers must consider what makes special education policies successful. 
  2. Educators and policymakers must consider “the implications that the movement toward more SWDs in general education classrooms has for supports and resources.”
  3. The study illustrates the kind of “systemwide work that must accompany specific program evaluation studies.” The authors call for increased research in additional school districts across the country. 

Ultimately, Stiefel et al. conclude that “although NYC has made progress towards increasing the amount of time that SWDs and GENs spend together, achievement gaps persist.” It is important to acknowledge that the research consulted in this study is largely descriptive and quantitative in nature, therefore its main limitation is that it cannot be considered causal. Rather, this study serves as a motivator to conduct additional, qualitative research in other districts across the United States and to further investigate why such gaps continue to exist in education. 

Summarized Article:

Stiefel, L., Gottfried, M., Shiferaw, M., & Schwartz, A. (2021). Is Special Education Improving? Case Evidence From New York City. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 32 (2), 95–107. https://doi.org/10.1177/1044207320934810

Summary by: Taryn McBrayne – Taryn believes in the power of student voice and, through the MARIO Framework, strives to create more opportunities for both educators and students to regularly make use of this power.

Additional References:

  1. Fund for Public Advocacy. (2012). Educating all students well: Special education reform in New York City public schools.http://archive.advocate.nyc.gov/special-ed
  2. MacMillan, D. L., Gresham, F. M., & Forness, S. R. (1996). Full inclusion: An empirical perspective. Behavioral Disorders, 21(2), 145–159.

Key Takeaway

Research suggests that teacher reprimands do not decrease students’ future disruptive behavior or increase their engagement levels. Instead, teachers should focus on proactive classroom management strategies, such as explicitly teaching classroom expectations, using behavior-specific praise, and reinforcing positive behavior as a way to encourage desired behavioral outcomes in the classroom. —Jay Lingo 

Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders (EBD)

“Many teachers resort to using reprimands in attempts to stop disruptive student behavior,” particularly amongst those students with emotional or behavioral challenges. 

Students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) may experience many challenges in school and often present commonly identified characteristics including aggression, attention and academic problems, antisocial behavior, low classroom engagement, high rates of disruptive behaviors, and mental health challenges. 

“The ways in which teachers and students interact can affect outcomes for students with EBD. There can be positive outcomes if the teacher–student interactions are positive and teachers have been able to increase the on-task behavior, or engagement, and decrease disruptions of students in their classrooms.” 

While teacher reprimands may suppress misbehavior momentarily, they do not appear to be effective in decreasing students’ disruptive behavior or increasing their engagement over time. Limitations and implications are also discussed. 

Reprimands: How Effective Are They?

Caldarella et al.’s study emphasizes that the “ways in which teachers and students interact can affect outcomes for students with EBD. Teachers who deliver low rates of negative feedback (e.g., reprimands) and high rates of positive feedback (e.g., praise) may be particularly effective with students with EBD when providing multiple teaching and learning opportunities that enhance students’ engagement.”

Furthermore, reprimands have been linked to escape-motivated behaviors, aggression, and further disruptive behavior. The use of reprimands for students with or at risk for EBD can be especially problematic, given the specific challenges faced by these students. The current study found that teacher reprimands did not appear to decrease future disruptive behavior or increase future engagement for students at risk for EBD, or vice versa. 

The results of the study show that although they may temporarily suppress misbehavior they do not result in long-term positive behavior change. This might be because reprimands do not directly teach students the skills needed to improve their behavior, and thus, students may continue to exhibit negative behavior and continue receiving reprimands. Another problem is that reprimands are reactive: a student acts disruptively and a teacher reprimands the student. 

The Alternative to Reprimands

Instead, the focus should be on effective teaching techniques and proactive behavior management strategies to decrease disruptions and increase engagement.

“Reprimands are meant to stop misbehavior. However, in the current study, teacher reprimands did not appear to help decrease future classroom disruptions or increase future engagement of students at risk for EBD.” This should not be surprising, as harsh reprimands in schools have been associated with negative side effects such as anger, fear, escape, and avoidance rather than improved student behavior. In addition to being harmful to teachers and their students, reprimands prove less effective than positive classroom behavior management strategies. “Teachers who use reprimands also report higher levels of emotional exhaustion than their peers who do not.” 

Given the findings of the current study, along with those of previous researchers, it is recommended that teachers replace reprimands with proactive classroom management strategies, such as clearly teaching classroom expectations, reinforcing positive student behavior, and using behavior-specific praise, as primary responses to student misbehavior and disengagement.

Summarized Article:

Caldarella, P., Larsen, R., Williams, L.,  Wills, H., & Wehby, J. (2020). “Stop Doing That!”: Effects of Teacher Reprimands on Student Disruptive Behavior and Engagement. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, Vol. 23 (2). DOI:  10.1177/1098300720935101.

Summary by: Jerome Lingo— Jerome believes the MARIO Framework is providing structure and common meaning to learning support programs across the globe. Backed up with current research on the best practices in inclusion and general education, we can reimagine education…together.

Key Takeaway

By using Universal Design, Universal Design for Learning, and Inclusive Design methodologies and principles in combination, websites can be designed to be accessible for all people. Innovative solutions to website design must be done in conjunction with people with disabilities, in order to ensure accessibility. This will allow all citizens to have access to information without barriers, especially during a pandemic. —Tanya Farrol 

The Need for More Accessible Websites

The pandemic has caused more and more people to rely on the internet to gain access to basic services, like food, education, healthcare, and legal services. This has led to the glaring realization of how inaccessible websites are for people with disabilities and how they can pose a barrier. In 2019 and 2020, over 1 million US websites were tested by WebAim, and 98.1% were found to be non-compliant to legal accessibility standards.1

This article explores the various disability models to the design process, and examines how Universal Design, Universal Design for Learning, and Inclusive Design methodologies and principles can work in combination to design accessible websites for all people.

Over 1 billion people today (15%) of the population have a disability.2 The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) classifies disability as “impairments, activity limitations and participation restrictions” and takes into consideration “body functions, body structures, activities, participation and the environment” in the design thinking process.3 The ICF is concerned with providing insight into the “human experience when accessing information online.”

With the creation of the Microsoft Inclusive Design Toolkit for the business and technology sectors, it “redefines what disabilities are and how they happen” (O’Neill, 2021). The toolkit uses a Persona Spectrum Model and explains that there are three types of disabilities—permanent, temporary, and situational.4 For example, the big buttons on an Xbox Adaptive Controller works for someone in a cast (temporary disability), a parent holding a child (situational disability), and a person with one arm (permanent disability).

Ableism is prevalent in our society. We continually devalue disabilities by using a medical model to “fix” the disability. This ableism has led to the lack of accessibility for people with disabilities to participate in our society. Web designers have ability biases where they design based on their own perceptions of the needs and wants of people with disabilities. Instead, we need to invite people with a variety of disabilities to be part of the design process, in order to innovate and improve web accessibility. 

Abilities Design is an umbrella term for the three design disciplines that design for accessibility and for people’s various abilities: Universal Design, Universal Design for Learning, and Inclusive Design. They are outlined briefly below. 

Universal Design

“Universal Design focuses on developing solutions that can be used by everyone without any alterations” (O’Neill, 2021). It is commonly known as Design for One—Design for All. It has 7 principles: equitable use, flexibility in use, simple and intuitive use, perceptible information, tolerance for error, low physical effort, and size and space for approach to use.5

Universal Design for Learning (UDL)

UDL is founded on the earlier work of Universal Design and is a framework to improve teaching methodologies based on how people learn. It has three principles:

  • Engagement—motivating students to learn—the why of learning
  • Representation—presenting information in different ways—the what of learning
  • Action and Expression—differentiated ways to express learners knowledge—the how of learning6

Inclusive Design

Inclusive Design is a methodology that provides adaptive solutions in their designs for various people. The framework centers around:

  • recognizing that the design must take into account each person’s ability and uniqueness;
  • using  “open and transparent processes” and co-designing with the people “who will be most affected by the design solution;”7
  • designing in a “complex adaptive system” that “suits the needs of different people.”8

Case Study: Two Judicial Websites

O’Neill (2021) performed a case study into the accessibility of two judicial websites, the US Southern District of Mississippi and the Sixth Judicial District of Minnesota, used the three disciplines of Abilities Design. For Universal Design, there were too many drop-down menus, which made it difficult for people with sight impairments or learning disabilities to find information. For UDL, there was too much written text, making it challenging for people with dyslexia or those whose first language was not English. In the Inclusive Design, there was a strong need to adapt the website and put in an accessibility panel that would give people greater control over the website, e.g. adjusting color contrast or changing the size of the font.

There are some great resources used by the US government to build accessible websites that adhere to the Abilities Design disciplines.

  • The US Web Design System (USWDS)—has good design principles and page templates to build accessible websites.9
  • The US General Services Administration created Accessibility for Teams—a quick, online guide for how to use inclusive design practices for accessible websites.10

Abilities Design is the way forward in using a combination of the principles and methodologies of Universal Design, UDL, and Inclusive Design to create access to digital information. By focusing on the abilities of people with disabilities and including them in the design process, we will innovate and create a more inclusive society. 

Summarized Article:

O’Neill, J. L. (2021). Accessibility for All Abilities: How Universal Design, Universal Design for Learning, and Inclusive Design Combat Inaccessibility and Ableism. J. Open Access L., 9, 1.

Summary by: Tanya Farrol – Tanya believes that the MARIO Framework is a personalized learning experience that develops skills and empowers learners to become an integral part of their learning journey.

Additional References:

  1. The WEBAIM Million: An annual accessibility analysis of the top 1,000,000 home pages. WebAIM. (2020, February). Retrieved November 1, 2021, from https://webaim.org/projects/million/. 
  2. World Health Organization and World Bank. (2011). World Report on Disability 2011. World Health Organization. Retrieved November 1, 2021, from https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/44575. 
  3. World Health Organization. (2002). Towards a Common Language for Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF). World Health Organization. Retrieved November 1, 2021, from https://www.who.int/classifications/icf/icfbeginnersguide.pdf. 
  4. Microsoft. (2016). Download.microsoft.com. Inclusive Microsoft Design 2016. Retrieved November 1, 2021, from http://download.microsoft.com/download/B/0/D/B0D4BF87-09CE-4417-8F28-D60703D672ED/INCLUSIVE_TOOLKIT_MANUAL_FINAL.pdf. 
  5. The 7 principles. Centre for Excellence in Universal Design. (2020). Retrieved November 1, 2021, from https://universaldesign.ie/what-is-universal-design/the-7-principles/. 
  6. CAST. (2021, April 20). About universal design for learning. CAST. Retrieved November 1, 2021, from https://www.cast.org/impact/universal-design-for-learning-udl. 
  7. Bjögvinsson, E., Ehn, P., and Hillgren, P.-A. (2012), Design Things and Design Thinking: Contemporary Participatory Design Challenges, Design Issues 2012, vol. 28, no. 3, Summer 2012, pp. 101–16.
  8. Treviranus, J. (2018, July 10). The three dimensions of inclusive design. Medium. Retrieved November 1, 2021, from https://medium.com/fwd50/the-three-dimensions-of-inclusive-design-part-one-103cad1ffdc2. 
  9. US General Services Administration. (n.d.). USWDS: The United States Web Design System. Retrieved November 1, 2021, from https://designsystem.digital.gov/. 
  10. US General Services Administration, Technology Transformation Services . (n.d.). Accessibility for Teams. Retrieved November 1, 2021, from https://accessibility.digital.gov/. 

Key Takeaway

Though it is too soon to have a large bank of data of the outcomes of COVID-19 on education, researchers anticipate a widening of the existing educational gap for students from lower socioeconomic differences and children with learning differences. As educators, it is critical we continue to check in with students about how they are coping and what assistance we can guide them toward in our schools and communities. —Matt Piercy

Virtual School: A Domino Effect

When educators made the shift to teaching virtually, it quickly became apparent that schools provided for many of society’s needs and not just learning. Schools often are depended on for basic necessities such as shelter, food, and health care. Socialization, a sense of connection, and mental health also all quickly surfaced as needs which schools often help fulfill. Further, the impact was not for just the youngest or oldest of learners. Rather, learners of all ages were affected.  

In their article, “The Effect of COVID-19 on Education,” Hoffman and Secord attest to how “the pandemic may bring about adverse educational changes and adverse health consequences for children and young adult learners in grade school, middle school, high school, college, and professional schools.” 

Direct Effects of COVID-19 and Statistics

The results of the study can be summarized as follows: 

  1. The effects of virtual schooling and the pandemic showed an increase in behavioral problems. On one survey, 34.71% of parents reported behavioral problems in their children1 
  2. Pandemic shutdowns led to family stress. Compiled evidence that “adverse life experiences at an early age are associated with an increased likelihood of mental health issues as an adult.”2  
  3. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 is legislation that allows for “appropriate accommodations, services, modifications, and specialized academic instruction to ensure that ‘every child receives a free appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment.’ “3 Delivery of support services were difficult with COVID measures.
  4. Families of children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder reported increased stress compared with other disabilities. This was true both pre-pandemic and only increased during the pandemic as more responsibility for monitoring was necessary during homeschooling.4 
  5. Adolescents with ADD/ADHD found the switch to virtual learning to be more anxiety producing. 
  6. “Adolescents reported higher rates of depression and anxiety associated with the pandemic, and in 1 study, 14.4% of teenagers report post-traumatic stress disorder, whereas 40.4% report having depression and anxiety.”5
  7. Parents reported how complicated and challenging it was to address children’s educational as well as mental health needs, especially as access to mental health services was limited during the pandemic. 
  8. Virtual learning led to excessive screen time which impacted sleep and also physical and mental health.
  9. Effects were felt at all levels of education, including medical school. The medical field adapted curriculum and methods in an effort to ensure student and patient safety during the pandemic. Medical students entering clinical rotations during the pandemic had a drastically different experience.  

Although the pandemic forced the hand of increasing technology integration, the negative impacts were far and wide. Again, it is still too early to fully comprehend the “fallout” or “fall behind” the pandemic has caused.

Ultimately, the delivery of knowledge and development of skills was felt at all levels of education. Some learners compensated and likely will continue to. Yet, we can anticipate a widening of the gap for the already disadvantaged—students in lower socioeconomic classes, who have language differences, or special needs. 

Summarized Article:

Hoofman, J., & Secord, E. (2021). The Effect of COVID-19 on Education. Pediatric clinics of North America, 68(5), 1071–1079. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2021.05.009

Summary by: Matt Piercy—Matt appreciates how at the heart of the MARIO Framework is a passion to develop relationships and a desire to empower students to uncover their purpose while building upon strengths.  Further, Matt is inspired by how the MARIO team supports educators and is quickly and nobly becoming a collaborative force in pursuit of educational equity.

Additional References:  

  1. Bobo E, Lin L, Acquaviva E, et al. How do children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) experience during the COVID-19 outbreak? Encephale 2020;46(3S). 
  2. Merrick MT, Ports KA, Ford DC, et al. Unpacking the impact of adverse childhood experiences on adult mental health. Child Abuse Negl 2017;69:10–9. 
  3. Keogh B. Celebrating PL 94-142: the education of All Handicapped Children Act of 1975. Issues Teach Educ Fall 2007;16(2):65–9. 
  4. Cox DJ, Plavnick JB, Brodhead MT. A proposed process for risk mitigation during OID-19 pandemic. Behav Anal Pract 2020;13(2):299–305 (Behavior Analyst Cer tification Board.(2020) Ethics guidelines for ABA providers during COVID-19 pandemic. Available at: http://www.back.com/ethics-guidelines-for-aba providers-during-covid-19-pandemic-2/. 
  5. Liang L, Ren H, Cao R, et al. The effect of COVID-19 on youth mental health. Psy chiatr Q 2020;91:841–52.