This study aimed to explore how task instructions, framed with need-supportive statements, can support motivation and the mechanisms that could explain the potential effect of such motivation on task performance. Specifically, the authors examined whether need-supportive task instructions can enhance the situational intrinsic motivation of secondary school students on an online language learning task.
Intrinsic Motivation is Inherently Present in Most People
Self-determination theory (SDT) posits that individuals are inherently driven by curiosity and a desire for learning, meaning people are naturally intrinsically motivated. Studies have shown that when students’ basic psychological needs are supported in digital learning environments, they are more likely to persist and remain motivated in their learning tasks. One approach to achieving this is by framing task instructions in a way that supports students’ needs for relatedness, competence, and autonomy.
Intrinsic motivation acts as a self-directed drive behind behavior. Research indicates that self-regulated learning strategies, such as self-assessment, serve as mediators linking motivation to achievement and are considered essential 21st-century skills.
Increased Intrinsic Motivation is Linked to Increased Task Performance
The study involved 106 secondary school students from a public science high school in Central Luzon, Philippines. Participants attended a brief Zoom meeting outlining the procedure, followed by completing a Qualtrics survey. They were asked about self-assessment, intrinsic motivation for the assignment, and the extent to which their basic psychological needs were met. The study tested a theoretically informed intervention to foster intrinsic motivation for an online learning task in two ways: (a) by including need-supportive statements within task instructions and (b) by assessing whether increased intrinsic motivation improves task performance, directly or indirectly, through self-assessment practice.
The results demonstrated that students who received need-supportive task instructions showed significantly higher intrinsic motivation than those with default instructions. The effect size of the need-supportive task instructions on intrinsic motivation was medium, while accounting for pre-test intrinsic motivation.
Although intrinsic motivation did not directly affect task performance, the study found that intrinsic motivation had an indirect effect through self-assessment practice. Specifically, increased intrinsic motivation led to more frequent self-assessment, which in turn improved task performance.
These findings suggest that while intrinsic motivation alone may not directly improve performance, self-assessment practices as a learning strategy can leverage intrinsic motivation to indirectly enhance task performance. In conclusion, need-supportive task instructions positively influence students’ intrinsic motivation for online learning tasks, offering new insights into the integration of self-determination theory, wise interventions, and self-assessment practice in online learning.
Online Task Instructions Can Be Modified to Respond to Students’ Needs
A key implication of this study is that online task instructions can be adjusted to be more responsive to students’ basic psychological needs. Reading plain, default task instructions may negatively impact students’ intrinsic motivation, especially outside traditional classroom settings. Based on the study’s findings, task instructions could be modified to:
Provide a clear task rationale
Use invitational language
Offer encouragement
Acknowledge students’ perspectives
Show unconditional positive regard
Another practical takeaway is the importance of fostering self-assessment practices among students. Students can be taught to:
Understand the assessment criteria or how their work will be evaluated
Observe the overall task and seek feedback from external sources
Ask questions or request clarifications
Revisit and revise their tasks to find areas for improvement
Notable Quotes:
“Although such intrinsic motivation had no direct effect on task performance, it yielded significant indirect effects via self-assessment practice.”
“Evidence suggests that students’ perception of a need-supportive learning context optimizes various students’ learning outcomes (e.g., achievement, motivation, engagement, well-being.”
“First, given that the intervention is brief and minimal scale, its effectiveness in increasing students’ intrinsic motivation can be put into question. It could be argued that merely adding phrases designed to communicate support for autonomy, competence, and relatedness needs may not consistently and sustainably impact intrinsic motivation.”
Personal Takeaway:
While the research offers useful insights into how need-supportive task instructions can boost intrinsic motivation, much of it aligns with what we already know about motivation and self-assessment. One thing that stood out is that self-assessment tends to be most effective for older students, which makes sense given the demographic in this study. Also, research shows that teacher feedback and modeling are key when it comes to self-assessment, though that wasn’t explored much here. —Matt Browne
Mendoza, N. B., Yan, Z., & King, R. B. (2023). Supporting students’ intrinsic motivation for online learning tasks: The effect of need-supportive task instructions on motivation, self-assessment, and task performance. Computers & Education, 193, 104663.
Self-Regulation
Motivation
Since the COVID-19 lockdown, a noticeable decline in student motivation has been observed, particularly with the transition to distance learning. This study explores how motivational processes impact the quality of mobile learning, analyzing factors that enhance students’ motivation to learn in isolated settings and identifying key demotivating factors that affect the quality of mobile learning..
Motivation: A Foundation for Learning
Online learning, which gained widespread adoption in the mid-1990s, is considered a form of mobile learning made possible by technology that allows learners to study remotely. Research indicates that a lack of motivation hinders the acquisition of knowledge and skills, even for the most capable students. Motivation serves as the essential driver for completing learning tasks and is critical to the success of mobile learning.
Motivation can be categorized into three types:
Intrinsic motivation: Engaging in an activity for its inherent satisfaction, rather than to achieve an external outcome.
Extrinsic motivation: Completing a task to attain a specific outcome.
Amotivation: The absence of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
Teachers can positively influence motivation by providing quality feedback, both positive and negative. It has been shown that positive feedback should significantly outweigh negative feedback to foster student engagement.
While gamification gained traction in the 1990s, its adoption in educational contexts has been slower compared to its widespread use in business. However, evidence suggests that gamification can effectively boost student engagement and performance.
Internal v.s External Motivation
A study conducted with 200 students and 46 teachers from The University of Jordan and Jordan University of Science and Technology revealed several insights into motivational factors.
Intrinsic Motivational Factors: Of the 200 students surveyed, 178 indicated that intrinsic motivation significantly influenced their interest in mobile learning. 156 students favored mobile learning because they recognized the importance of continuously updating their knowledge and skills. Self-regulation was a key internal factor that influenced motivation, as mobile learning required students to develop new learning habits—a challenge for many.
Extrinsic Motivational Factors: Teachers’ influence on student motivation can be both positive and negative. Some students expressed discomfort with reaching out to teachers for help, while others noted that larger video call groups made them feel more comfortable sharing their thoughts compared to smaller groups. Features embedded in learning platforms, such as user-friendly design, also increased motivation.
Demotivating Factors
Several demotivating factors were identified:
Organizational issues, such as poorly designed or undifferentiated learning materials and lectures, were seen as less valuable by students.
Noisy and distracting environments made it challenging for students to fully engage with the learning process.
Recommendations That Can Improve the Online Learning Experience
The authors outlined several strategies to enhance the mobile learning experience:
Provide rewards to help students achieve their learning goals, promoting self-motivation and independence.
Involve students in curriculum development, allowing them to express their preferences on class content, while maintaining the essential balance between theory and practice to meet learning objectives.
Offer quality and timely feedback to students.
Integrate gamification techniques and technologies to boost engagement.
Create a flexible educational system that involves both teachers and students in selecting various digital platforms, rather than focusing on a single platform.
Develop mechanisms for mental health support and career counseling through electronic meeting platforms.
Promote group-based online training to enhance peer learning.
Incorporate clinical simulation training into online education.
Notable Quotes:
“Research has shown that students feel motivated when there are more people in a class.”
“Among the major advantages of mobile learning that influence students’ motivation, they point out a comfortable and relaxing learning environment, saving money and time, and health safety.”
“Gamification can play a major role in boosting students’ motivation to learn.”
Personal Takeaway:
While the authors did not list any major takeaways, there were a few bits of information that contradicted what I would have assumed to be true about online learning. First, students were more motivated in large class sizes and felt uncomfortable in smaller groups (like breakout rooms on Zoom). While breakout rooms can sometimes bring more pressure, it was interesting that students preferred to share in a larger, whole-class setting when online. Secondly, teachers should be given more autonomy to select a digital platform (ie. Google Classroom, Zoom, Teams) that they feel most comfortable with. While potentially different in a university setting than K-12, each institution would usually have a uniform policy outlining what platforms should be used.—Matt Browne
Al-Said, K. (2023). Influence of teacher on student motivation: Opportunities to increase motivational factors during mobile learning. Education and Information Technologies, 28(10), 13439-13457.
Motivation
Student-Teacher Relationships
Student Effort
This study explored the interaction between two critical topics: the personalities of language learners and the instructional motivational practices of teachers. Researchers aimed to answer questions about how to predict English learning motivation and self-efficacy.
Different Types of Learners
The literature review highlights several frameworks to understand students’ learning motivation and teachers’ motivational instructional practices when teaching language learners.
The Motivational Self System by Dörnyei: Identifies three types of learners: the ideal self, the ought-to self, and the learner experience to explain the motivations of language learners.
The Big Five Model: Categorizes individual personality traits into extraversion, emotional regulation, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness to experience.
Model by Chen, Warden, and Chang: Introduces the “required orientation” label to account for the cultural context of Chinese heritage, suggesting that cultural expectations to gain social capital and recognition are strong motivators in Hong Kong and Taiwan.
The study sought to identify which instructional practices effectively promote language learning motivation regarding various personality traits. Xiang highlights that self-efficacy is a vital part of motivation but is not factored into the models described above. Xiang’s research aims to determine what traits can predict language learner self-efficacy and motivation.
Teacher Instruction and Motivational Practices
The study also examines teacher instruction regarding motivational practices with language learners, focusing on two areas: teacher discourse and attribution.
Teacher Discourse: Involves developing a motivational environment to encourage learners to start and continue their learning efforts.
Attribution: Includes self-evaluation and recognizing learners’ efforts to build their self-efficacy.
The study discusses other frameworks to better quantify personality traits and understand how these traits interact with specific teaching practices.
Instructional Practice Can Support Effective Language Learning
The study surveyed eleven high schools in Hong Kong, analyzing the results from six schools. Twenty-four lessons from twelve teachers were examined to identify the instructional practices used. A bilingual, four-point Likert survey was designed based on the Big Five personality traits. The results indicated specific instructional practices that teachers can employ to support effective language learning.
Positive Retrospective Self-Evaluation: This practice showed a moderate increase in learning motivation, particularly with traits of conscientiousness and openness to learning. The Motivational Self System traits also showed a significant influence on learner efficacy when this practice was used.
Teacher Discourse: Establishing relevance, arousing curiosity or attention, scaffolding, and referential questions were less effective.
Strong Learner Motivation Makes All the Difference
Students with the strongest learner motivation had traits of conscientiousness and openness to learning. Less beneficial traits were emotional regulation and extraversion. Teachers’ positive retrospective self-evaluation practices, including class applause, effective praise, and self/peer correction, significantly impacted language learning efficacy.
Other findings show that self-efficacy and motivation respond to specific teaching practices. Specific feedback practices affect motivation and self-efficacy, suggesting that teachers play a role in motivation. The feedback and reflection illustrate that the goal of learning English is achievable.
Lastly, learner motivation accounts for 18% to 33% of language achievement, highlighting the need for further study. The study shows that teachers can impact student motivation, so how teachers influence motivation should be part of teacher training and professional development. While universal practices may not apply due to individual differences, general principles like positive retrospective self-evaluation and teacher discourse are predictive of language learning through increased self-efficacy.
Notable Quotes:
“In instructed language learning, the classroom constitutes the most immediate learning context, with teachers’ practice arguably on the most important features, yet little attention has been given to the way this factor interacts with language motivation.”
“The findings indicate that language learners’ motivation and self-efficacy are responsive to effective feedback practices, thus confirming similar previous findings (e.g. Guilloteaux and Dörnyei, 2008; Papi & Abdollahzadeh, 2012; Wong, 2014) and pointing to the fact that teaching practices matter and that teachers can affect motivational change.”
“Research suggests that language learning motivation is associated with 18%–33% of variation in language learning achievement (Al-Hoorie, 2018; Masgoret & Gardner, 2003).”
Personal Takeaway:
In recent years, I have encountered more students who struggle with effort and motivation. When thinking of ways to boost a student’s motivation, teachers, including myself, often feel inadequate in addressing this. The biggest takeaway from the study was the impact of two teacher practices: discourse and self-evaluation. Self-evaluation had a slightly greater impact and involves supporting learners with feedback to improve skills. Researchers explained that feedback might allow students to feel included in the community and have actionable ways to make progress, increasing effort. This strategy can be individualized for students who struggle, boosting their self-efficacy.
Lastly, researchers stated that current educational programs need to address motivation and what actions teachers can use to impact students. I agree, as I increasingly encounter this problem with students. Motivation is nuanced and specific to individuals, but there are practices and new knowledge I can use to help support students. —Dana R. Wells
Hennebry-Leung, M., & Xiao, H. A. (2023). Examining the role of the learner and the teacher in language learning motivation. Language Teaching Research, 27(1), 30-56.
Researchers conducted an updated review of the literature on interventions to promote overall self-determination and skills associated with self-determined action in students with disabilities in the school context. Associated skills included choice-making, decision-making, problem-solving, goal setting and attainment, planning, self-management, self-advocacy, self-awareness, and self-knowledge.
The Value of Self-Determination
Self-determination is integral to student achievement of both academic goals and positive post-school employment, community integration, and quality of life outcomes. Emerging definitional frameworks for understanding self-determination highlight the value of developing skills associated with self-determined action (i.e., choice-making, decision-making, problem solving, goal setting and attainment, planning, self-management, self-advocacy, self-awareness, and self-knowledge) in students with disabilities. Given the value of self-determination in the lives of students with disabilities and expansion in theory, research, and practice, an updated review of the literature on interventions to promote self-determination and skills associated with self-determined actions was needed.
Positive Findings in Article Search
Researchers identified 34 articles published between 2000 and 2015 that met the search criteria. Search criteria required that articles: a) be published in an English language, peer-reviewed journal, b) include participants with disabilities between the ages of 3 to 21, c) occur in the school context, and d) report outcomes of an intervention intended to promote overall self-determination or skills associated with self-determined action. Researchers analyzed types of interventions, populations of students with whom they were implemented, outcomes, and rigor of research. “Findings include (a) an increase in the number of participants in self-determination studies, (b) positive outcomes for students with diverse personal characteristics (e.g. disability status, gender), and (c) a need for improved rigor in reporting quality of research.” Results indicated positive outcomes of interventions to promote self-determination across grade levels (primarily middle and high school), disability groups, and setting using a variety of instructional methods.
Increased Focus Needed on Promoting Self-Determination
These findings highlight the need for increased focus on “promoting self-determination within inclusive, general education settings with students with disabilities and of diverse backgrounds.” Incorporating evidence-based self-determination instruction enhances transition planning and access to and participation in the general education curriculum. The most commonly implemented intervention was the Self-Determined Learning Model of Instruction (SDLMI; Wehmeyer, Palmer, Argan, Mithaug, & Martin), a multi-component intervention targeting multiple skills associated with self-determined action. Given the strong research base supporting SDLMI as well as the availability of materials to support its implementation, teachers should consider this comprehensive intervention for integrating self-determination skills into the instruction. While interventions promoting self-determination proved effective across age ranges, the majority (i.e., 76%) of the studies reviewed included transition-age students. Given the positive outcomes and viable means reported, practitioners can “help students set and achieve education and transition related goals, benefiting students in school and in the real world.”
Notable Quotes:
“Given the value of self-determination in the lives of students with disabilities, it is essential that skills associated with self-determination are integrated into instruction in the school context.”
“It is often assumed that students learn skills associated with self-determined action, such as goal setting, problem solving, and decision-making incidentally; however, more explicit instruction needs to be dedicated to these skills, which are included in almost all state or local education agency content objectives.”
“By continuing to focus on and improve instruction to promote self-determination, it is possible to further enhance the focus on enabling young people with disabilities to set and achieve goals as causal agents in their own lives.”
Personal Takeaway
Self-determination positively predicts in- and post- school outcomes as well as transition planning for students with disabilities. Improved understanding of the development and skills associated with self-determination guides current assessment and intervention. Consequently, evidence-based interventions allow practitioners to feasibly and effectively integrate self-determination and skills associated with self-determined action into instruction within the school context for students with and without disabilities.
Ashley Parnell
Summarized Article:
Burke, K. M., Raley, S. K., Shogren, K. A., Hagiwara, M., Mumbardó-Adam, C., Uyanik, H., & Behrens, S. (2020). A meta-analysis of interventions to promote self-determination for students with disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 41(3), 176-188.
The question of how learners’ motivation influences their academic achievement and vice versa has been the subject of intensive research due to its theoretical relevance and important implications for the field of education. This study shows how influential theories of academic motivation have conceptualized reciprocal interactions between motivation and achievement, and the kinds of evidence that support this reciprocity.
Mediating Factors Between Motivation and Achievement
Motivation and emotion can be a difficult line to draw. Both of these concepts can interact, although emotions are depicted as more temporary than motivation. For instance, certain emotions can either enhance or obstruct motivation. Just like how there have been studies on the relationship between motivation and student achievement, there are recent studies on the reciprocal relationship between emotions and student achievement.
There are several mediating factors between motivation and achievement. When effort is measured as quality of learning (e.g., selecting adaptive goals, adopting higher-quality learning strategies, etc.), there is some evidence for a positive link between academic achievement and effort. However, when effort is measured as a quantity of learning (such as study time, practice time, time-on-task, persistence, etc.), this relationship seems either weak or only significant after controlling for quality of learning. Another mediating factor can be self-regulation, as some theories suggest motivation only leads to the decision to act.
Finding of Studies Performed on Motivation and Achievement
Most studies (this article summarized multiple studies) investigating the reciprocal relationship between motivation and achievement have measured motivation through questionnaires probing academic self-concept (e.g., the Academic SelfDescription Questionnaire by Marsh & O’Neill, 1984). The studies interpreting the connection between motivation and achievement lack a causal relationship. In almost every study investigating reciprocal motivation and achievement relations, the need for experimental designs, in which either motivation or achievement is manipulated, is raised as a suggestion for future research.
The Influence of Motivation on Achievement
All the theories examined suggested that there are positive influences of motivation on achievement and vice versa. There is also a very strong relationship between motivation and student achievement. One of the hardest problems to solve is the lack of studies that allow for firm causal inferences. While there are studies that lack a controlled variable, there are other studies that do have a causal effect but consist of a third or hidden variable.
Notable Quotes:
“This led to a research agenda consisting of the following recommendations for future studies on the relationship between motivation and performance: (1) include multiple motivation constructs (on top of ASC), (2) investigate behavioral mediators, (3) consider a network approach, (4) align frequency of measurement to expected change rate in intended constructs and include multiple time scales to better understand influences across time-scales, (5) check whether designs meet the criteria for measuring causal, reciprocal inferences, (6) choose an appropriate statistical model, (7) apply alternatives to self-reports, (8) consider various ways of measuring achievement, and (9) strive for generalization of the findings to various age, ethnic, and sociocultural groups.”
“We argued that the strongest support for causal claims on motivation-achievement relations would be studies manipulating either motivation or achievement at one time point and studying the effects on motivation-achievement interactions across subsequent time points.”
“…there might be culture-dependent or population-specific pathways connecting the relationship between motivation and achievement.”
Summarized Article:
Vu, T., Magis-Weinberg, L., Jansen, B. R. J., van Atteveldt, N., Janssen, T. W. P., Lee, N. C., van der Maas, H. L. J., Raijmakers, M. E. J., Sachisthal, M. S. M., & Meeter, M. (2022). Motivation-Achievement Cycles in Learning: a Literature Review and Research Agenda. Educational Psychology Review, 34(1), 39–71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-021-09616-7.
Summarized By: Michael Ho
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While there are many studies out there that examine the general intrinsic motivation for physical activity, little research has been done on emotions as a crucial factor in understanding student motivation in a PE setting. By considering the students’ subjective emotional experiences, a more holistic understanding of physical activity behavior change and why students are not getting enough daily physical activity can be better understood.
The levels of physical activity in school-aged children
In Germany, only 22.4% of girls and 29.4% of boys aged 3 to 17 reach the WHO guideline of physical activity, and their physical activity significantly decreases from age 3 to 17. Therefore, a deeper understanding of emotions among students during physical activity will better inform what is triggering their regular physical activity during leisure time. In addition, the control-value theory of learning and achievement emotions serves as an appropriate and established theoretical framework, as it presents antecedents and outcomes of emotions in school settings.
The benefits of perceived autonomy supports in student self-efficacy
The sample consisted of 1030 student participants between 11 and 18 years who attended Grades 6 to 10 of the German Mittelschule, which is a type of school with the lowest educational level among secondary schools in Germany. 408 participants were female (39.6%), and 622 participants were male (60.4%). Whether or not the PE teacher was perceived to be providing cognitive autonomy and organizational autonomy supports positively predicted students’ academic self-efficacy in PE.
Furthermore, the students’ academic self-efficacy in PE positively predicted their enjoyment in PE, which had a negative effect on their anxiety in PE. The intrinsic value that students identified in PE also positively predicted students’ enjoyment and negatively predicted their anxiety.
The students’ enjoyment in PE was a positive predictor of their physical activity during leisure time.
Finally, perceived cognitive autonomy support provided by the PE teacher positively predicted students’ physical activity in leisure time via students’ PE-related academic self-efficacy, intrinsic value, enjoyment and anxiety.
Creating positive emotional experiences
If students are provided the opportunity to influence their learning environment, they tend to have higher action-control expectancies and assign more relevance to their PE class. PE can be seen as a potentially powerful platform for the promotion of leisure-time physical activity, especially if it is conducted in a way that evokes regular positive achievement emotions in students while keeping negative ones on a minor level. This study suggests a substantial potential of emotional experiences in PE as a powerful predictor of physical behavior outside of school.
Notable Quotes:
“Positive emotional experiences in PE could be seen as a main factor to increase physical activity in a lifelong perspective and could thus help students to improve their overall health.”
“PE teachers have the opportunity to create positive emotional experiences for students and to reduce the experience of negative emotions by use of autonomy-supportive teaching strategies.”
“PE exhibits the potential to affect students’ thoughts and feelings related to PE in leisure time and thus is a promising starting point for children and adolescents with regard to an active lifestyle in the long term.”
Personal Takeaway:
As special educators, we tend to focus on our students’ core subjects. We may easily forget the importance of PE and how emotions can play a big role in their motivation to do well in their physical activity. The findings of this study allow me to attend to the students’ emotional experience during physical activity in recess and PE classes. It will also allow me to use autonomy-supportive teaching strategies by considering the environment and creating opportunities in the classroom for physical activities they enjoy.
Michael Ho
Summarized Article:
Zimmermann, J.; Tilga, H.; Bachner, J.; Demetriou, Y. The Effect of Teacher Autonomy Support on Leisure-Time Physical Activity via Cognitive Appraisals and Achievement Emotions: A Mediation Analysis Based on the Control-Value Theory. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 3987. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18083987
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The purpose of the current study was to identify self-regulated learning profiles among middle school students and to investigate whether these profiles related to multiple indicators of academic success and regulatory engagement in mathematics.
What is Self-Regulated Learning?
“Self-regulated learning (SRL) refers to a process of managing one’s thoughts, actions, and environment during learning or pursuit of goals.” SRL processes include goal-setting, planning, monitoring, and reflecting on one’s learning. Substantial research supports a positive relationship between these SRL processes, student achievement, and academic skills. Furthermore, SRL theorists have also posited that SRL is a context- and task-specific phenomenon. In other words, SRL can be influenced by contextual factors (e.g., quality of instruction and teacher support) and students’ perceptions of those contexts.
Measuring Levels of Self-Regulated Learning
Three hundred and sixty-three middle school students participated in this study. Students completed self-report inventories and scales to measure perceived use of regulatory strategies, self-efficacy beliefs to engage in SRL, perception of teacher support, and feelings of connection with the school. Based on the results, researchers identified five cluster groups/profiles varying across two dimensions (i.e., SRL and perceived contextual supports) in the math classroom. Researchers then examined whether these profiles (i.e., High SRL- High Support, Solid SRL- Low Support, Low SRL- Supported, Very Low SRL- Low Support) differentially predict class engagement (i.e., measured by teacher rating scales) and math achievement (i.e., measured by report cards and standardized test scores). Students who do not feel supported or connected to school contexts and who demonstrate weak SRL skills (i.e., strategic & motivational) exhibited low levels of SRL in the classroom and were more likely to exhibit poor academic performance as reflected on standardized tests. On the other hand, students who reported frequent use of SRL skills, regardless of their level of perceived teacher support, exhibited stronger mathematics grades than those who did not frequently use SRL strategies.
Regardless of the level of support or connections that students felt in school, the groups who reported engaging more frequently in strategic and motivated behaviors for work outside of school were more likely to display adaptive SRL within the classroom, based on teacher reports.
Predictors of Student Behaviour and Academic Performance
Research on the whole suggests that perceptions of the learning environment affect learners’ school-based functioning, but identifies SRL skills and motivational beliefs as stronger predictors of student behavior and academic performance.To best support learners who struggle in school, practitioners must understand the factors that most directly influence achievement while also recognizing that many of these factors concurrently operate and intersect within individuals in particular contexts.
Given that SRL is a malleable, context-specific phenomena, efforts should be made to identify students exhibiting less adaptive function across both SRL skills and perceived contextual support and then provide relevant support targeting both dimensions for these students. This is particularly important in an online learning environment, which necessitates a higher level of student responsibility and may increase the likelihood that students feel socially isolated and disconnected from teachers and others.
Notable Quote:
“When viewed collectively, research suggests that students’ perceptions of learning contexts and teacher support are important when assessing students’ school‐based functioning, but that SRL and specific motivational beliefs may play a larger role in student behavior and academic performance.”
Personal Takeaway
Self-directed learning involves motivational, strategic, and contextual factors which uniquely and interactively influence learner achievement and engagement. An understanding of these dynamic influences and student profiles will help practitioners recognize the most at-risk students and, in turn, provide relevant supports targeting SRL skills and perceived contextual support to enhance engagement and achievement.
Ashley Parnell
Summarized Article:
Cleary, T. J., Slemp, J., & Pawlo, E. R. (2021). Linking student self‐regulated learning profiles to achievement and engagement in mathematics. Psychology in the Schools, 58(3), 443-457.
Key Takeaway:
As educators, we must consider our collaborative planning, teaching, and assessment practices for Special Educational Needs (SEN) students to establish a deliberate connection between their Individual Education Program (IEP) and mainstream science objectives. In the science classroom, this might include using a range of methods, techniques and strategies that will enable all students to demonstrate their conceptual understanding of science as well as to build interest and confidence in the subject. —Niki Cooper-Robbins
Scientific Literacy for SEN Students
This article outlines a Turkish study conducted with 12 grade 5-8 SEN students and the contributions of 15 science and SEN teachers. The aim of the study was to:
develop a scientific experimental guidebook for the students;
investigate the book’s effect on the students’ conceptual understanding of physical events in science.
The study took place against an identified, national need to improve the scientific literacy of SEN students through a better understanding of science topics. The launch of a new curriculum brought with it an expectation of closer collaboration between the science and SEN teachers. The importance of this research becomes apparent when you come to realize that in this context, it is the norm for SEN students to receive their Turkish, math, and science education in the separate SEN resource space as opposed to the mainstream classroom. “Resource rooms take mainstream students’ learning needs into consideration,” and this was the missing element (excuse the pun!) in the science classroom. In contrast, the science teachers had the subject knowledge, but the SEN teachers did not. The purpose of the scientific experimental guidebook was to bridge the gap referred to as ‘pedagogical content knowledge’ between the SEN and science environments.
Deliberate & Inclusive Design
The guidebook incorporated interactive techniques to increase interest in and attitudes towards science and to empower students to express, support and generate their ideas in a range of ways. Avatars of the students and QR code links to YouTube videos of experiments were designed to build confidence, interest and belonging. Discussion-based routines to support the introduction, exploration and evaluation of concepts played a key role in the simultaneous development of conceptual understanding and social skills.
Findings
The results of the study showed that the guidebook was successful in that it did support conceptual understanding in a positive way. The data revealed that the“hands-on and minds-on” experiences enhanced understanding, and the option to express insights through drawings proved more successful than the tests and interviews. When considering why, the reason given was the students’ complex and varying profiles. For example, students with dyslexia or dysphasia were less inhibited when conveying understanding through drawings as opposed to writing or speech.
The study identified that the students struggled to transfer knowledge to new situations, and this was particularly evident with the more abstract concepts. The main finding, therefore, was that learning was more effective when the learning experiences were multi-sensory and interactive.
In addition, the study was found to be “in harmony with Dilber’s (2017)1 views, emphasizing that science topics should be contextually linked with daily life … Moreover, such a learning environment (i.e. conducting science experiments within small groups, watching experimental videos, and discussion about the results) may have enabled [SEN students] to imagine the concept in their minds.2 This means that peer learning and effective teaching strategies overcome students’ difficulties in understanding science concepts.”3
Summarized Article:
Er Nas, S., Akbulut, H. İ., Çalik, M., & Emir, M. İ. (2021). Facilitating Conceptual Growth of the Mainstreamed Students with Learning Disabilities via a Science Experimental Guidebook: a Case of Physical Events. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 45–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-020-10140-3.
Summary by: Niki Cooper-Robbins—As an ESL Coach, Niki is an advocate for the needs of language learners and, through the MARIO Framework, endeavors to nurture and celebrate linguistic diversity in education.
Additional References:
Dilber, Y. (2017). Fen bilimleri öğretmenlerinin öğrenme güçlüğü tanılı kaynaştırma öğrencileri ile yürüttükleri öğretim sürecinin incelenmesi / Examination of the instructional process carried out by the science teachers with mainstreaming students diagnosed learning disabilities [Unpublished Master’s thesis]. University of Karadeniz Technical.
Talbot, P., Astbury, G., & Mason, T. (2010). Key concepts in learning disabilities. Sage.
Thornton, A., McKissick, B. R., Spooner, F., Lo, Y., & Anderson, A. L. (2015). Effects of collaborative pre-teaching on science performance of high school students with specific learning disabilities. Education and Treatment of Children, 38(3), 277–304. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.2015.0027.
Key Takeaway:
It can be tempting to implement rewards and punishment in the classroom and educators tend to forget about the importance of intrinsic motivation to foster academic growth and engagement. Shkedy et al. (2021) explored how implementing Visual Communication Analysis (VCA) along with self-determination theory when teaching students to type independently may provide an avenue to build intrinsic motivation among students with autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disabilities. Consequently, the learning and functional communication skills of these students would improve. —Michael Ho
The Study
Shkedy et al. (2021) examined the efficacy of using Visual Communication Analysis (VCA) in teaching children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), intellectual disability (ID), and speech and language impairment to type independently as a means of expressive and functional communication. VCA is an“experiential therapy that is used to teach communication and can also be used to teach academics, while building confidence and self-esteem, and ultimately decreasing maladaptive behaviors.”In this study, Shkedy et al. (2021) investigated the relationship between instructional time each student received in typing and the letters correct per minute.
The researchers hypothesized that VCA implementation will increase psychological well-being and decrease maladaptive behaviors among children with ASD, ID, and speech and language impairment.
Major Takeaways
“The rise in the number of students with disabilities served under the federal law of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in public schools increased between 2011 and 2017, from 6.4 million to 7.0 million students.”1
Students with ASD and ID have been significantly increasing over the past few years, and there is a need to provide personalized support to each student based on their needs and abilities.
“Special education classrooms are usually very structured and rigid and the majority are managed using token systems,” indicating that there is very little autonomy in a special needs classroom. This contradicts what special educators are responsible for—to meet the needs of each unique learner.
VCA has led to significant decreases in maladaptive and self-injurious behaviors, an increase in verbalizations and effective toilet training.
VCA combines Self-Determination Theory (SDT) with visual support, prompting, and technology; it provides students a variety of choices and perceived control when learning, in order to develop intrinsic motivation and competence.
Deci and Ryan (1985a & 2000) defined Self-Determination Theory (SDT) as a theory of intrinsic motivation that has three components—autonomy, competence, and relatedness; these three components tend to foster motivation and engagement for activities, including enhanced performance, persistence, and creativity.2
27 students aged 5.5 to 11.5 years, who had at least one diagnosis of ASD, ID, speech-language impairment, were recruited from three special day classrooms across two elementary schools in South Bay Union School District, San Diego County, California.
On average, a minimum of one class period per school day was allocated to using VCA, and data was automatically collected by a software. Based on self-determination theory, the students were provided choice, autonomy, and competence at the appropriate level without any rewards or punishments.
The Findings
The results indicated that there was a consistent positive effect of VCA-based instruction on typing efficiency for all groups of students (ASD, ID, speech-language impairment, and autism comorbid with ID), regardless of the diagnosis.
With the use of VCA, participants learned to type effectively, thereby improving their learning and functional communication skills. In addition, participants found success with learning novel tasks, as the difficulty of the task gradually increased after each successful performance.
Educators, professionals, and parents can use the data from this research to create opportunities for children with ASD, ID, and/or speech-language impairment to design and implement effective instruction on communication through typing.
Limitations
Firstly, the time dedicated to the study varied from one student to another based on teachers’ expectations. There is also a lack of standardized assessments used prior to the beginning of this study, as age limitations on some assessments meant that younger participants were given different assessments from older participants. In addition, the age range of the participants ignored older students from secondary schools. Finally, less than 25% of the participants were females.
Summarized Article:
Shkedy, G., Shkedy, D., Sandoval-Norton, A. H., Fantaroni, G., Montes Castro, J., Sahagun, N., & Christopher, D. (2021). Visual Communication Analysis (VCA): Implementing self-determination theory and research-based practices in special education classrooms. Cogent Psychology, 8(1), 1875549.
Summary by: Michael Ho—Michael supports the MARIO Framework because it empowers learners to take full control of their personalized learning journey, ensuring an impactful and meaningful experience.
Academic researchers Dalia Shkedy and Aileen Herlinda Sandoval participated in the final version of this summary.
Additional References:
National Center for Education Statistics. (2019). Children and youth with disabilities. U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_cgg.asp
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Cognitive evaluation theory. In Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior (pp. 43–85). Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7_3
Key Takeaway:
Temptation can hamper engagement and perseverance directed towards a specific task and cause distractions that can impact the learning process of a student. One way to maintain motivation for a given task is to allow students to choose their tasks and activities based on their interests. Another way is to foster self-efficacy, which enables the student to believe that they are capable of maintaining a high level of motivation and focus. —Shekufeh Monadjem
Attractive Alternatives: Temptation vs Engagement
When working on important tasks, there are always attractive alternatives that tempt us away from our work, be it social media, talking to a friend or even cleaning the house. In their study, Kim,Y., (Washington University), Yu, S.L., (Ohio State University) and Shin, J. (Seoul National University) explored how the effects of self-efficacy can impact the notion of temptation over a period of time. “As students’ learning does not happen in a vacuum, target tasks should be examined in relation to the distracting tasks to better depict motivational challenges that students face within the educational context.”1
“When the attractiveness of an alternative exceeds that of the current task, students feel tempted, and the motivation for the alternative rises.”2 Even if students have high motivation for a certain academic task, they may not engage in the learning if there is another task that is more motivating or attractive to them.
Researchers suggest that the presence of temptation can hamper engagement and perseverance towards a given task by distracting the student to the extent that it will adversely affect their learning process. Milyavskaya and Inzlicht (2017) “found that simply experiencing temptation led to depletion and lower goal attainment.”3 Fries and Dietz (2007) “suggested that the negative impact of temptations comes from lowering motivation for the learning activity. Students often succumb to temptation and fall into the trap of task-switching or procrastination.”4
Self-Regulated Learning and Student Motivation
Self-regulated learning (SRL) can improve “the ability to concentrate on the target task in the presence of tempting alternatives”5 Self-regulated learners are more likely to maintain their motivation and sustain their engagement on a current task, instead of being distracted by other alternatives.
The current study focused on the aspect of self-efficacy for SRL, which is a crucial aspect of SRL. “Abundant evidence suggests the strong link between self-efficacy, motivation, and performance. If students perceive themselves as capable of planning, managing, and regulating their own academic activities, they are more likely to have higher confidence in learning and mastering their activities.” Previous research suggests that higher levels of self-efficacy for SRL can contribute to “higher academic self-efficacy, higher achievement, and less school dropout.”6
One way to maintain student motivation is to allow students to make their own choices and decisions. “It is important to provide meaningful choice opportunities to students to promote their interest, on-task engagement, and persistence.”7 Teachers have also realised that choice provides students a sense of responsibility and self-control, thus making students more involved and engaged in academic activities. This is especially important and effective for students with low interest or SRL skills.
Summarized Article:
Kim, Y. E., Yu, S. L., & Shin, J. (2021). How temptation changes across time: effects of self-efficacy for self-regulated learning and autonomy support. Educational Psychology, 1-18.
Summary by: Shekufeh Monadjem—Shekufeh believes that the MARIO Framework builds relationships that enables students to view the world in a positive light as well as enabling them to create plans that ultimately lead to their success.
Academic researcher Yeo-eun Kim participated in the final version of this summary.
Additional References:
Hofer, M. (2010). Adolescents’ development of individual interests: A product of multiple goal regulation? Educational Psychologist, 45(3), 149–166.
Hofer, M. (2007). Goal conflicts and self-regulation: A new look at pupils’ off-task behaviour in the classroom. Educational Research Review, 2(1), 28–38.
Milyavskaya, M., & Inzlicht, M. (2017). What’s so great about self-control? Examining the importance of effortful self-control and temptation in predicting real-life depletion and goal attainment. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 8(6), 603–611.
Fries, S., & Dietz, F. (2007). Learning in the face of temptation: The case of motivational interference. The Journal of Experimental Education, 76(1), 93–112.
Baumann, N., & Kuhl, J. (2005). How to resist temptation: The effects of external control versus autonomy support on self-regulatory dynamics. Journal of Personality, 73(2), 443–470.
Caprara, G. V., Fida, R., Vecchione, M., Del Bove, G., Vecchio, G. M., Barbaranelli, C., & Bandura, A. (2008). Longitudinal analysis of the role of perceived self-efficacy for self-regulated learning in academic continuance and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(3), 525–534.
Black, A. E., & Deci, E. L. (2000). The effects of instructors’ autonomy support and students’ autonomous motivation on learning organic chemistry: A self-determination theory perspective. Science Education, 84(6), 740–756.
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