There is currently a lack of research that focuses on “the needs and experiences of families of children with [autism spectrum disorder] (ASD) ( . . . ) in the United States who represent multiple minoritized identities, including race, ethnicity, language, lower socioeconomic status, and geographical differences.” This study serves to take the first step towards understanding “K-12 school transition strategies that support these intersectionally minoritized communities” as a means to improve outcomes for those with ASD.
Parent and Student Concerns About Transitions
While school transitions vary, previous research reveals that a majority of parents express concerns about ASD knowledge of school staff in the new setting, especially as the number of teachers with whom students interact increases as they advance through the grade levels. Additionally, parents and teens were concerned with social skills, independent functioning, coping skills, and social relationships (Lee et al., 2014; Makin et al., 2017; Neal & Frederickson, 2016). When considering the intersection of minoritized families and students with ASD, research states that there are greater challenges related to transitions due to a lack of resources. For instance, students may be misdiagnosed or income and/or geographical location may impact access to certain services.
Transition Supports That Can be Used to Facilitate Transitions
Smith et al. used critical race theory as a framework for their research to better “understand the inherent strengths of minoritized communities and the cultural capital they employ when navigating K-12 school transition.” They also adopted a community-partnered participatory research model (CPPR) to enable bidirectional learning between the researchers and the community.
45 parents of children with ASD who had gone through a school transition and received public assistance, as well as 75 school providers, were involved in the interview-based study. The results of the study revealed four key school transition supports for minority families with children with ASD: school tours and visits, information and communication tools, knowledge and skill acquisition, and people who facilitated the transition process.
School tours and visits were cited as the most popular transitional support but also brought forward challenges given the time commitment needed to travel to the school and potential barriers related to accessing transportation. However, parents “agreed on the power of cheat sheets and other transition tools that gave linguistic capital to families as they navigated school transitions.” The most beneficial and universal formal support identified by all parents was the classroom teachers.
The Importance of Communicating to Families Regarding Transitions and Supports
Smith et al’s. study emphasizes the power dynamics between institutions and the communities they serve. The transition process explored in this study highlights “how the dominant culture seeks to reproduce systems that continue to subordinate these communities (Solorzano et al., 2000; Yosso, 2005).” While parents understood the value of participating in these transition efforts for their children, many still require social capital to aid in their participation.
Regardless, “the families in this study displayed their rich navigational capital throughout the entire transition process. They utilized their social networks, learned new skills, researched their options, and persisted in order to maneuver through processes and institutions developed primarily for nondisabled, White, middle-class populations.” Moving forward, the authors noted the need for additional research to better understand the differences experienced by specific ethnic and racial groups. The study also reinforces the importance for school leaders to provide linguistically appropriate communication to families regarding transition practices and available supports.
Notable Quotes:
“In urban communities, parents typically have more choices for school programs and placements for children with ASD, but options for rural, economically, ethnically and linguistically minoritized children with developmental disabilities are few, particularly for high school (Ben-Porath, 2012).”
“For secondary school transition, beneficial skills included self-advocacy, independence, and self-determination skills, often delivered through social skills groups and embedded daily social skills instruction. This focus on growing independence and developing the youth’s ability to make choices highlights the importance of this developmental period.”
“Parents and providers identified similar barriers and successes identified by ethnically and linguistically diverse families with children with other developmental disabilities (Burke, 2017; St. Amant et al., 2018). For example, parents whose primary language is Spanish require written information in Spanish in a timely manner (e.g., a Spanish-language IEP provided during the actual meeting instead of waiting for weeks or months after).”
Personal Takeaway:
As this study revealed, classroom teachers play a significant role in a successful school transition for students with ASD and their families. It is important that teachers’ communication with families remains clear and consistent throughout the process, and taking time to ask the families what would be helpful for them may go a long way in making the process easier for all stakeholders. — Taryn McBrayne
Smith, J. M., Kataoka, S. H., Segovia, F. R., Osuna, A., Arriaga, I., Garcia, C. D., Lee, H. S., Chiappe, J. C., Juarez, J. L., Kasari, C., Hassrick, E. M., Jones F., Mandell, D. S., Stahmer, A. C., Mundy, P., Smith, T., & Linares, D. E. (2021). Communities Speak Up: Supporting the K-12 school transitions of students with autism. Multiple Voices for Ethnically Diverse Exceptional Learners, 21(1), 55-77.
Research suggests that women face increased barriers when attempting to obtain leadership positions in school districts due to stereotypical cultural norms held in traditionally patriarchal societies. This study seeks to explore the various challenges that women in Ghana encounter when trying to acquire a principal role in their local school district.
Principals Hired on the Basis of Connections Rather Than Merit
In many Sub-Saharan African schools, principals are not hired based on their skills, but rather because of “their years of service and political, religious or tribal affiliations.” Research in Sub-Saharan Africa has found that women have traditionally been barred from accessing leadership positions due to the patriarchal cultures and the mindset that men leaders can do the job better than women (Bush, 2014; Bush and Glover, 2016; Mestry and Schmidt, 2012; Moorosiet al., 2018; Ngcobo and Tilky, 2010). However, researchers also argue that women are “more effective educational leaders than men because they are sensitive to the needs of children, teachers and parents.” A lack of self-esteem and self-confidence has also been noted as reasons for preventing women from obtaining leadership positions.
The Gender Disparity in Educational Leadership
The study relied on qualitative research to survey the experience of twelve female principals employed by the KEEA school district in the Central Region of Ghana. The participants ranged in age from 31 to 60 years old and had varying years of experience in their leadership role. The participants also served students of various age groups and worked at both urban and rural schools. Using a semi-structured interview approach, the interviewers prompted the participants to reflect on their experiences as female school leaders, seeking to answer the following questions:
What are the experiences of women principals in Ghanaian K-12 public schools?
What challenges do these women encounter in their work as principals?
What support exists for these women to effectively execute their leadership roles?
To help analyze participant responses, the authors used Hofstede (2011) dimensions of national culture as a conceptual framework to organize and categorize their findings. This model looked at four main categories: power distance index, individualism vs. collectivism, masculinity vs. femininity, and uncertainty avoidance index. Overall, the study revealed that “women overcame the power dimension and hierarchy using other cultural attributes such as collectivism and traits related to living and working in a feminine country.”
In other words, despite the challenges that these women encountered, they persisted and found success in their positions by working together and developing strong networks and support systems. They also used their maternal qualities to their advantage, creating a unique style of leadership that gained the respect of parents and students alike.
Recommendations To Promote Equity in Educational Leadership
Although this study is a limited sample of the population, the authors argue that there are still significant lessons to be learned given the “global call to promote equity.” The authors offer the following as recommendations for policymakers and scholars:
Orientation sessions for new school leaders, particularly women, to foster strong working relationships.
Develop mentorship programs to help develop leadership skills.
Create an association specifically for women principals to help encourage the sharing of resources and experiences.
Expand networking opportunities.
Engage in additional research with a larger sample and other areas of Ghana to compare findings.
Notable Quotes:
“Ghana scored high in this dimension, indicating that people tend to accept hierarchy without
questioning it. Ten out of twelve women had been victims of biases, recipients of microaggressions, and had been disrespected or humiliated by older women and men in various positions.”
“Using their collectivistic inclination, the women leaders sought help from their families, peers and various existing networks. Relying on each other for help and support seemed to have helped the women leaders go through the initial hurdles imposed by the cultural norms of the Ghanaian patriarchal and traditional society.”
“In traditional patriarchal societies, men hold the power, authority, and clout, while women manage the home and children. However, these principals shared that their husbands perceived them as professionals and equal partners in their homes and that Ghana’s patriarchal culture did not transpire into their homes.”
Personal Takeaway:
As a female-identifying individual, I see value in creating opportunities and spaces for women to share experiences and resources in the workplace. Having strong support systems in place helps to foster a positive working environment and allows the voices of women to be heard and validated. It is through building this sense of community that women can continue to develop the self-confidence needed to pursue and succeed in leadership positions. —Taryn McBrayne
Brion, C. and Ampah-Mensah, A. (2021). “Changing cultural norms through education: voices from Ghanaian women principals”, International Journal of Educational Management, Vol. 35 No. 7, pp. 1458-1475. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEM-11-2020-0521
Self-Directed Learning, Online Learning
The article provides a summary of home-based pedagogies, enrollment trends, and student demographics in California independent study charter schools. The authors describe how these schools operate with different models of independent study, where students learn through a combination of self-directed activities, online coursework, and in-person meetings with teachers.
Independent Charter Schools Show Growth in Numbers
The authors analyze data from the California Department of Education to provide insights into enrollment trends and student demographics. They found that independent study charter schools have experienced significant growth in recent years, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. Additionally, they note that these schools serve a diverse student population, including those who are low-income, homeless, or have special needs.
The Future Potential of Charter Schools
The authors also highlight the challenges facing independent study charter schools, including concerns about quality and accountability. They conclude that while there is much to learn about the effectiveness of home-based pedagogies, independent study charter schools have the potential to provide flexible and personalized learning opportunities for students.
Growing Awareness of Alternate Forms of Education
The COVID-19 pandemic has forced most K-12-aged children into a non-classroom-based learning environment, bringing universal awareness to this alternative form of K-12 education. If the U.S. Department of Education estimates are accurate and this sector of education continues to grow in the ways demonstrated in this paper, it is projected that one in 22 students, or 4.6% of all school-aged children, will be homeschooled by 2025.
Notable Quotes:
“This analysis indicates that private homeschooling and independent study charter school enrollment will become an increasingly common educational option for families in the future.”
“The enrollment trends described in this paper reveal a societal shift in terms of the growing number of parents seeking nontraditional, non-classroom-based K-12 learning opportunities for
their children.”
“We speculate that the post-Covid-19 era of K-12 education will move to a more nonclassroom-based learning environment, as parents more fully understand alternatives to a traditional classroom learning experience for their child.”
Personal Takeaway:
Having just come out of a forced period of online learning for students in my middle school (due to the pandemic) and seeing the effect it had on the social and emotional well-being of the students, I wonder how a balance could be created between having an online education while still being actively involved in community activities and having time to spend with peers.—Shekufeh
Brandy Anderson & Karen Amesse (2022): California Independent Study Charter Schools: Summary of Home-Based Pedagogies, Enrollment Trends, and Student Demographics, American Journal of Distance Education, DOI: 10.1080/08923647.2022.2068316
The study investigated the link between self-directed learning, metacognition, and 21st-century skills in light of online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Teachers and Students Both Struggled During Online Learning
The research highlights the impact the COVID-19 pandemic had on teacher training with regard to online learning. Teachers and prospective teachers, who live in low socio-economic areas, struggled as much as their students to have access to technology. While access to technology is key to success in online learning, the pandemic also required technological and pedagogical planning adjustments. Readiness for online learning, 21st-century digital literacy skills, metacognition, and self-directed learning were all skills needed by teachers and students to successfully create teaching and learning environments in these extraordinary circumstances.
Skills Necessary for Success and Readiness in Online Learning
834 prospective teachers from a Turkish university were chosen, of those, 73% were female and 27% male. The average age of the participants was 22. The data was collected through an online survey that measured their ratings on scales for 21st-century skills, self-directed learning skills, metacognitive awareness, and readiness for online learning. Several tests were applied to measure the reliability and validity of the data from the survey.
The results indicated that possession of self-directed learning skills, metacognitive awareness, as well as 21st-century skills predicted the readiness for online learning. Therefore the hypothesis was supported that all three sets of skills are needed to successfully conduct online learning.
Learning Needs to be Flexible, Adaptive, and Thoughtful
The link between self-directed learning skills, metacognition, and 21st-century skills can help to build and sustain motivation among students during online learning scenarios. Equally, the authors argued that learning in the 21st century ought to be flexible, adaptive, and thoughtful to allow for new learning opportunities, and provide the digital literacy and technology skills students and teachers need for life and their career. Consequently, training for prospective teachers should also integrate these skills to raise and improve teachers‘ readiness for online learning as it has become more common as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Notable Quotes:
“The development of information and communication technologies and the increase in virtual learning opportunities has led to a change in people’s understanding of learning.”
“Students’ ability to direct themselves in learning and to utilize learning technologies can affect student learning effectiveness.”
“…teachers who have not gained 21st century skills, metacognitive awareness, and self-directed skills will be unable to pass on these skills to their students. In this context, prospective teachers should be provided with competencies to raise and improve their level of readiness for online learning in the teacher training process.”
Personal Takeaway
I wholeheartedly agree that teachers ought to have skills that allow them to compete with the demands of online learning and the use of technology in the classroom and everyday life. The study confirms what my experience of teaching online was: metacognition, self-directed learning, and digital skills had to be taught to allow for students to successfully access and sustain learning during longer periods of online learning.—Frankie
Karatas, K., & Arpaci, I. (2021). The Role of Self-directed Learning, Metacognition, and 21st Century Skills Predicting the Readiness for Online Learning. Contemporary Educational Technology, 13(3), ep300. https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/10786
Executive Functions, Metacognition
“Working memory holds working mental representations for us in ongoing cognitive activities.” Meta-working memory or meta-memory refers to the awareness of one’s working memory. The authors explore how meta-memory develops with age.
The Importance of Working Memory Storage
More accurate meta-memory has been associated with better learning since awareness of forgetting could allow a child to ask for repeated instructions. It could also contribute to “better mnemonic strategies, allocation of attention, and awareness of the limits of comprehension.”
It is also generally agreed that working memory storage is the key to cognitive development and essential to daily life through language use, problem-solving, and planning.
There are, however, limits to this information processing, and most adults can only keep between three to four separate visual items in mind. This memory capacity is typically lower in children, with preschoolers and early school-aged children retaining only about two items in mind.
The Connection Between Cognitive Capacity and Meta-Memory
The authors looked at the meta-memory of children between six and 14 years old, and adults. Participants were asked to remember an array of colored squares and indicate if an item was in the array. They reported how many items they thought they remembered and the authors compared these scores to their actual performance.
The results from the study suggest that both working memory and meta-memory improve with age. This could be because there are “increased resources and knowledge needed for meta-judgments” and children may forget to take into account forgetting processes, and be less adept at understanding the task or prompt.
Even though children have a lower working memory capacity, average meta-memory ratings were similar across age groups, around three to four items, suggesting a general limitation in human information processing systems. Adults also on average tended to overestimate their capabilities. There was also evidence that higher cognitive capacity (working memory) was associated with more accurate meta-memory.
Notable Quotes
“More accurate meta-memory insight has been associated with better learning (Balcomb & Gerken, 2008; Garner, 1987; Schneider & Pressley, 1989), including better mnemonic strategies, allocation of attention, and awareness of the limits of comprehension (Schraw, 2001).”
“…the developmental literature on meta-memory suggests that children do not understand their own long-term memory and tend to think they will not forget.”
“Metacognitive ability appears to be positively related to memory performance.”
Personal Takeaway
Working memory allows us to store and manipulate information, making it an integral part of success in academic and daily life. As an educator is it key to plan and delivery content with the understanding that the average human can only store on average three items, and that this number would decrease with age. Many disabilities also impact working memory. Helping students develop strong meta-memory skills could also be a way to bridge this gap. Being aware of one’s memory and being able to reflect on what you can remember could help with many tasks. For example, a student realizing they do not remember the task instructions could ask a teacher to repeat them.—Ayla Reau
Forsberg, A., Blume, C. L., & Cowan, N. (2021). The development of metacognitive accuracy in working memory across childhood. Developmental Psychology, 57(8), 1297–1317. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001213
Pandemic, Social & Emotional Learning
While researchers are beginning to study the impacts of COVID-19 on youth across the globe, the impacts of the pandemic on Canadian youth are still not fully understood. However, it can be hypothesized that because physical activity and social connection are important determinants of mental health, student-athletes may have experienced more significant negative impacts to their mental health compared to youth who were not previously involved in team sports. Therefore, “the aim of this study was to describe and interpret Canadian high school student-athletes’ experiences with physical activity, mental health, and social connections during the COVID-19 pandemic.”
The Universal Impact of COVID-19 on Students
While the pandemic impacted each individual differently, previous research reveals that impacts also vary by nation. “A study of parents in Italy and Spain reported that >85% of their children decreased physical activity levels, increased screen time, and increased maladaptive emotional and behavioural signs (Moray House School of Education and Sport). In Germany, increased isolation and decreased social connections were associated with increased psychological distress (University of Calgary). In China, 40% of youth experienced psychological distress (e.g., post-traumatic stress disorder [14%], negative coping, stress) after COVID-19 was announced as a public health emergency (University of Calgary).”
COVID-19 Isolation Led Students to Develop Creative Ways to Exercise
The researchers sampled twenty high school student-athletes from Calgary, Alberta, Canada who were engaged in one of 10 high-risk concussion sports (ex: rugby, ice hockey, soccer, etc.). Participants were then interviewed, using a semi-structured model, via phone or zoom once COVID-19 restrictions were lifted in Alberta in June 2020.
Shepherd et al. found that most participants experienced feelings of anxiousness, shock, and fear during the onset of the pandemic. The study also revealed that many student-athletes felt restless as they lost their sport as an energy outlet. Some additional findings include a decrease in social connections as a result of lockdown restrictions and a lack of overall physical activity due to the inability to access equipment or a decrease in motivation. For those students who were unable to access training equipment specific to their sport, many resorted to alternative methods of exercise, such as running and online training plans, while others got creative and adapted household items to suit their training needs. Many participants shared that support and encouragement from teammates, family, and friends, were beneficial to their engagement in physical activity. Many of the surveyed athletes reported that team calls and online workouts helped to hold them accountable in their training. However, it was apparent that social media and social distancing were not a replacement for social connection and participants reported that relying on digital methods of communication was “tiresome.” Once restrictions were lifted, most participants reported that their physical activity increased.
Solutions for the Future
Ultimately, should there be more lockdown restrictions in the future, Shepherd et al.’s study reveals the need for increased flexibility for student-athletes to access methods of physical activity, such as real-time virtual training sessions that can be completed with little or no equipment. Mental health resources should also be promoted to student-athletes, including access to peer support, mentorship, and registered mental health professionals. If weather permits, access to outdoor public spaces may provide more opportunities for physical engagement and social connection, as well as foster a sense of community and normalcy.
Notable Quotes
It is important to note that “although the study asked about changes in mental health throughout the COVID-19 pandemic[…], the researchers did not inquire about participants’ natural fluctuation in mental health and thus alterations in mental health reporting may have been due to external factors (e.g., seasonal changes).”
“Many participants shared that family, friend, and teammate support and encourage-
ment (e.g. verbal praise) were more important to their engagement in physical activity during the pandemic than prior to the pandemic.”
“The design of online training programs should include exercises that can be completed
with limited or no equipment. This may help to reduce potential barriers, such as lower family socio-economic status, to participation in physical activity at home.”
“Although social media allowed for connections throughout COVID-19, the heavy reliance
on social media may have negative health consequences for youth. Participants in this
study shared that the reliance on social media became tiresome, and that reliance on it
impacted their ability to communicate using non-verbal channels with their peers.”
Personal Takeaway
The COVID-19 pandemic has showcased that school is more than just a place to learn academically. Rather, school also serves as a space for students to socially interact with their peers and teammates, developing friendships and engaging in multiple means of communication and self-expression. As the world moves forward into a post-pandemic era, it is imperative that educators strategically build opportunities for social interaction as a way for students to continue to develop the social skills needed to foster strong, in-person, social connections that are beneficial for mental health and well-being.
Shepherd, H. A., Evans, T., Gupta, S., McDonough, M. H., Doyle-Baker, P., Belton, K. L., Karmali, S., Pawer, S., Hadly, G., Pike, I., Adams, S. A., Babul, S., Yeates, K. O., Kopala-Sibley, D. C., Schneider, K. J., Cowle, S., Fuselli, P., Emery, C. A., & Black, A. M. (2021). The Impact of COVID-19 on High School Student-Athlete Experiences with Physical Activity, Mental Health, and Social Connection. International journal of environmental research and public health, 18(7), 3515. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18073515
The study was conducted to verify if it was possible to predict the readiness levels of students for online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. The authors researched the readiness levels by analyzing student metacognitive awareness, self-directed learning skills, and 21st-century skills and competencies.
It All Starts With The Teacher
Yurdugül and Demir (2017) state that an individual or institution should have the necessary prior
knowledge, skills, and affective characteristics such as attitude and motivation in order to experience online learning in the most effective way. Cooper et al. (2020) state that to meet the needs of their future students, teachers must be prepared to integrate technology into their teaching as well as to be prepared to teach online. If this is not the case, it is claimed that teachers who do not have online learning readiness will not be able to support their students sufficiently (Hung et al., 2010).
In traditional education, a ‘teacher’ was seen as the only source of knowledge. Today, sources of information have become very diverse. Therefore, as information has become easier to access, the nature of learning has also changed. Now it is important to gain skills related to where information can be accessed and how to learn it (Karatas & Basbay, 2014). To be more precise, people are expected to acquire the skills of learning to learn. Individuals who cannot learn to learn and who cannot organize their own learning processes fall behind in many areas in the globalizing world where technology is rapidly developing (Taskin, 2019).
Predictors of Readiness for Online Learning
A sample of 834 prospective teachers were recruited from a public university in Turkey, and scales were developed to measure each individual’s 21st-century skills and competencies, self-directed learning level, and metacognitive awareness. This study found a significant relationship between readiness for online learning and metacognitive awareness, self-directed learning skills, and 21st-century skills competency. At the same time, metacognitive awareness, self-directed learning skills, and 21st-century skills competency are found to be predictors of readiness for online learning. The researchers believe that important findings have been obtained on how student motivation can be built and sustained in online learning.
Skills Should Be Taught to Prospective Teachers
It is important to ensure that all students, especially prospective teachers, are ready for online learning in a way that will support their autonomy and improve their motivation. Therefore, when the teacher becomes stronger pedagogically, this strength will be reflected in the student. As a result, in the process of training prospective teachers, a concerted effort should be made to raise each student’s 21st-century skills, metacognitive awareness, and self-directed skills in order to increase levels of readiness for online learning.
Notable Quotes:
“Today’s teacher must be competent in information and communication technologies and have a high online learning capacity (Grande-de-Prado et al.)…”
“Teachers who have not gained 21st century skills, metacognitive awareness, and self-directed skills will be unable to pass on these skills to their students.”
“In the 21st century, knowledge itself is growing ever more specialized and extending exponentially. These changes also affect education systems, and the necessity to make needed changes in the acquisition of knowledge, skills and competencies of individuals (Arpaci, 2018).”
Personal Takeaway:
I eagerly read this research article with the recent memory of online learning still very fresh in my mind. This study covered topics that I intrinsically knew but never thought of as vital skills necessary to have a positive and successful online learning experience. I appreciated the focus on these three skills and learned how they are necessary in the teacher, in order for them to be passed on to the student.—Shekufeh
Karatas, K., & Arpaci, I. (2021). The role of self-directed learning, metacognition, and 21st century skills predicting the readiness for online learning. Contemporary Educational Technology, 13(3).
The study was conducted to verify if it was possible to predict the readiness levels of students for online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. The authors researched the readiness levels by analyzing student metacognitive awareness, self-directed learning skills, and 21st-century skills and competencies.
It All Starts With The Teacher
Yurdugül and Demir (2017) state that an individual or institution should have the necessary prior
knowledge, skills, and affective characteristics such as attitude and motivation in order to experience online learning in the most effective way. Cooper et al. (2020) state that to meet the needs of their future students, teachers must be prepared to integrate technology into their teaching as well as to be prepared to teach online. If this is not the case, it is claimed that teachers who do not have online learning readiness will not be able to support their students sufficiently (Hung et al., 2010).
In traditional education, a ‘teacher’ was seen as the only source of knowledge. Today, sources of information have become very diverse. Therefore, as information has become easier to access, the nature of learning has also changed. Now it is important to gain skills related to where information can be accessed and how to learn it (Karatas & Basbay, 2014). To be more precise, people are expected to acquire the skills of learning to learn. Individuals who cannot learn to learn and who cannot organize their own learning processes fall behind in many areas in the globalizing world where technology is rapidly developing (Taskin, 2019).
Predictors of Readiness for Online Learning
A sample of 834 prospective teachers were recruited from a public university in Turkey, and scales were developed to measure each individual’s 21st-century skills and competencies, self-directed learning level, and metacognitive awareness. This study found a significant relationship between readiness for online learning and metacognitive awareness, self-directed learning skills, and 21st-century skills competency. At the same time, metacognitive awareness, self-directed learning skills, and 21st-century skills competency are found to be predictors of readiness for online learning. The researchers believe that important findings have been obtained on how student motivation can be built and sustained in online learning.
Skills Should Be Taught to Prospective Teachers
It is important to ensure that all students, especially prospective teachers, are ready for online learning in a way that will support their autonomy and improve their motivation. Therefore, when the teacher becomes stronger pedagogically, this strength will be reflected in the student. As a result, in the process of training prospective teachers, a concerted effort should be made to raise each student’s 21st-century skills, metacognitive awareness, and self-directed skills in order to increase levels of readiness for online learning.
Notable Quotes:
“Today’s teacher must be competent in information and communication technologies and have a high online learning capacity (Grande-de-Prado et al.)…”
“Teachers who have not gained 21st century skills, metacognitive awareness, and self-directed skills will be unable to pass on these skills to their students.”
“In the 21st century, knowledge itself is growing ever more specialized and extending exponentially. These changes also affect education systems, and the necessity to make needed changes in the acquisition of knowledge, skills and competencies of individuals (Arpaci, 2018).”
Personal Takeaway:
I eagerly read this research article with the recent memory of online learning still very fresh in my mind. This study covered topics that I intrinsically knew but never thought of as vital skills necessary to have a positive and successful online learning experience. I appreciated the focus on these three skills and learned how they are necessary in the teacher, in order for them to be passed on to the student.—Shekufeh
Karatas, K., & Arpaci, I. (2021). The role of self-directed learning, metacognition, and 21st century skills predicting the readiness for online learning. Contemporary Educational Technology, 13(3).
Cognitive Science, Inclusion, Transitions
Researchers wanted to identify skills, behaviors, expectations, and experiences required of students with cognitive disabilities post-high school to ensure effective transition into new settings for these students.
Certain Skills Can Lead to a More Positive Post-School Transition
Following a detailed literature review, the authors were able to create a cluster of relevant skills leading to positive post-school transition outcomes. Moreover, they identified steps in developing a research-based transition assessment for students with cognitive disabilities.
Over 40 Years of Studies Were Analyzed
The researchers chose 53 quantitative and qualitative studies which met an extensive list of criteria to ensure their relevance to the research task. The studies included were published between 1975 and 2018 and were reviewed by several expert advisors prior to the literature review. The research team categorized the 103 identified skills, behaviors, expectations, and experiences into ten constructs that influence post-school transition: academics, agency assistance, employment, family home expectations and support, personal experiences, school experiences, self-determination, self-care, social, and technology.
Effectively Support Post-School Transitions
It was discussed that educators and family members should be made aware of factors that are known to increase participation in post-school outcomes. The study urges stakeholders to design a post-school transition assessment to identify the areas of strengths and weaknesses for each student to effectively support them in their transition. Consequently, this would influence classroom instructions and guidance for educators and families to support post-school outcomes like further education, employment, and independent living.
Notable Quotes:
“…few transition assessments have been adapted to meet the needs of students with significant cognitive disabilities.”
“…current transition assessments are rooted in vocational evaluation and career
assessment, which do not address goals related to independent living.”
“Improving the post high school outcomes of students with significant cognitive disabilities is dependent on identifying the areas of greatest strength and need throughout the transition planning process, which, in turn, is dependent on having students and families provide input.”
Personal Takeaway:
The study highlights how important student voice and choice is. To allow for the best possible outcome for students, we have to teach them skills that empower them to make the best possible choices for themselves, using skills that allow them to be independent and reflective. I will pay closer attention to the readiness of my students to be living by themselves and their self-advocacy for a post-school setting.—Frankie
McConnell, A., Sanford, C., Martin, J., Cameto, R., & Hodge, L. (2021). Skills, Behaviors, Expectations, and Experiences Associated with Improved Postsecondary Outcomes for Students with Significant Cognitive Disabilities. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 46(4), 240-258.
Inclusion, Interventions
This study addresses the subpopulation of students with significant cognitive disabilities and who are also English language learners. The study explores the instructional experiences of this subgroup as they have complex language acquisition and academic needs.
Special Education Teachers Are at the Forefront
Students with significant cognitive disabilities and who are also English language learners are likely to be served primarily through special education classrooms and services without receiving routine instruction for language acquisition. This is because many may not be included in a formal language evaluation process as it is difficult to identify whether language-acquisition challenges are related to the disability of language learner status. Even highly effective special educators may lack the skills and support to provide the cultural and linguistic environment needed for this subpopulation of students.
Teachers Focus on the Disability Rather Than Language Acquisition
The authors interviewed 10 teachers who have students within this subgroup to learn about how they identify and meet the needs of their learners. The 10 participating teachers were from the east and midwestern regions of the United States. Through a semi-structured interview protocol teachers were asked about their own background, the students, and the teacher’s instruction.
Three themes emerged in the findings.
In most cases, participants identified language status from IEPs, screeners, or prior participation in English language services. Teachers did not distinguish disability and language-related instructional needs and viewed them as linked. If it was distinguished they tended to believe the need was due to the disability rather than English language status. Special education teachers without English language training may naturally default to a disability lens when interpreting behavior.
“Service delivery models, educational goals, and instructional strategies were largely driven by disability and were often characterized as good strategies for students with significant cognitive disabilities, regardless of their EL status.” Instructional strategies fell into two main categories: use of visuals during instruction to provide language support and providing a language-rich environment where students were fully immersed in the English language.
Teachers found it key to take steps to maintain communication and build relationships with parents to support student learning. In most cases, this communication was a challenge due to linguistic and cultural barriers.
Special Education Teachers Need English-Language Acquisition Training
The authors suspect that the numbers of this subgroup are underrepresented. In the 10 participants’ caseload, they identified almost 50% more students than what the reported numbers suggest. There may also be some limitations in special educators’ view of students’ learning needs as most did not distinguish between disability- and language-related needs for this subgroup. This disability-dominant lens is likely compounded by the teacher’s own cultural or linguistic background and limited access to colleagues with more experience providing linguistic support.
“The majority of participants in this study described no differentiated language support for their ELs. Without these services and supports, teachers may miss students’ demonstrations of knowledge and skill or miss opportunities to deepen students’ English-language development.” Models and guidelines are needed to help educators learn how to design and implement IEPs that address students’ English language needs and goals.
In the early stages of language development, it is important to build a sufficient vocabulary base through rich and varied language experiences. The practice of using picture-supported text and text-based instruction may help. Providing a multilingual classroom environment and some instruction in their native language can also help English learners achieve better academic outcomes. The authors also highlight the value of training special education teachers on English-language development so that students can be encouraged to demonstrate their skills and understandings regardless of the language being used.
Notable Quotes:
“…between <1% and 26% of students with disabilities are EL, depending on the state…”
“For ELs, close relationships with families could aid in identifying students’ knowledge, skills, and understandings in their home language and identify links between content and students’ home language and culture.”
“More research is also needed to validate alternate English-language proficiency standards: What is the minimum amount of English a student with a significant cognitive disability needs to be ready to access and make progress in the general curriculum?”
Personal Takeaway:
As educators, it is key to tailor service delivery models, educational goals, and instructional strategies to individual students’ needs. This is especially true of students who have a disability and language-related needs and may need services from both learning support and EAL teachers. Although many strategies that teachers used for a student with a disability may also work for English-language learners, students with language learning needs still deserve access to robust linguistic support so that their acquisition needs can be met.—Ayla Reau
Karvonen, M., Clark, A. K., Carlson, C., Wells-Moreaux, S., & Burnes, J. Approaches to instruction and assessment for students with significant cognitive disabilities who are English learners. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities (46, 4) pp. 223-239.
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